Expansive soils and practice in foundation engineering
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1 Expansive soils and practice in foundation engineering Jay X. Wang, Ph.D., P.E. Programs of Civil Engineering and Construction Engineering Programs Louisiana Tech University 1
2 Facts about expansive soils Cracked foundations, pavements, floors and basement walls are typical types of damage done by swelling soils. Every year they cause billions of dollars in damage. The ASCE estimates that 1/4 of all homes in the United States have some damage caused by expansive soils. In a typical year in the United States they cause a greater financial loss to property owners than earthquakes, floods, hurricanes and tornadoes combined (USGS website). 60 percent of the 250,000 new homes built on expansive soils each year in the US experience minor damage and 10 percent experience significant damage (Holtz and Hart, 1978). 2
3 Expansive soils are not as dramatic as hurricanes or earthquakes and they cause only property damage, not loss of life. Expansive soils act more slowly and the damage is spread over wide areas rather than being concentrated in a small locality (Coduto et al., 2015). Swelling clays can exert uplift pressures of as much as 5,500 psf (Rogers et al.). Liquid limits exceeding 50 percent and plasticity index over 30, usually have high inherent swelling capacity. Expansive clay soils can be easily recognized in the dry season by the deep cracks, in roughly polygonal patterns, in the ground surface. 3
4 Desiccation cracks in soil caused by drying (Rogers et al.) (UACE) 4
5 Annual Damage in the US from expansive soils (Jones and Jones, 1987) Category Annual Damage ($) Highways and streets 4,550,000,000 Commercial buildings 1,440,000,000 Single family homes 1,200,000,000 Walks, drives and parking areas 440,000,000 Buried utilities and services 400,000,000 Multi-story buildings 320,000,000 Airport installations 160,000,000 Involved in urban landslides 100,000,000 Other 390,000,000 Total annual damages (1987) 9,000,000,000 5
6 Swelling Clays Map of the Conterminous United States" (Olive et al., 1989) 6
7 Approximate distribution of major montmorillonite clay deposits in the US (Tourtelot, 1973) 7
8 Damage cases on buildings and pavements 8
9 A cost of $490,000 spent to repair this and other walls, ceilings, doors and windows, represented nearly one-third of the original cost of the six-yearold building (Colorado Geological Survey) 9
10 Building damage: displaced bricks and inward deflection of foundation (UACE) 10
11 Differential settlement due to influence of trees (Clayton et al., 2010) 11
12 Structural damage to house caused by end lift (Peter Kelsey & Partners) 12
13 Longitudinal cracks along pavement shoulders (Sawangsuriya et al, 2011) (Sebesta, 2005) 13
14 Longitudinal cracks in the middle of pavements 14
15 Linear heave ridges (Noe, 2007) (fhwa.dot.gov) 15
16 Differential heave from steeply dipping expansive bedrock 16
17 Swimming pool in expansive soils (Rogers et al.) 17
18 The layer of soil that has a fluctuating moisture content (Coduto et al., 2015) 18
19 Depth of the active zones in selected cities (O Neill and Poormoayed, 1980) 19
20 Profile of expansive soils from Denver International Airport, Denver, Colorado (CSU 2004; Chao 2007) 20
21 Profile of expansive soils from Fort Sam Houston, San Antonio, Texas (Nelson et al., 2015) 21
22 Annual fluctuation in moisture content on expansive soil (Elarabi) 22
23 Idealized pore water pressure profile (Nelson et al., 2015) 23
24 Soil-water characteristic curve for ordinary curves (Nelson et al, 2015) 24
25 Identification, Testing and Evaluation of Expansive Soils Visual identification Have significant clay content, CL or CH. Dry expansive soils often have fissures, slickensides, or shattering When dry, the soils have cracks at the ground surface Determination of degree of expansiveness A wide variety of testing evaluation methods available, but none of them universally or even widely accepted. Qualitative method; semi-quantitative method and quantitative method (Coduto et al., 2015) 25
26 Qualitative Methods 26
27 Correlations of swelling potential with common soil tests (Holtz, 1969) 27
28 Correlations of swelling potential with common soil tests (Chen, 1988) 28
29 29
30 Semi-quantitative evaluations In terms of swell potential, measured in some kind of loaded swell test Usually a laterally confined cylindrical specimen, initially dry specimen loaded with a surcharge, then soaked. The specimen swells vertically. This displacement divided by the initial height (immediately before soaking) is the swell potential, usually expressed as a percentage. 30
31 Regular lab test to characterize expansive soils Standards for the performance of oedometer tests to measure expansion potential are set forth ASTM D4536. Two basic types of oedometer tests: the consolidation-swell (CS) test, and the constant volume (CV) test. The consolidation-swell test Soil sample initially subjected to a prescribed vertical stress and inundated under that constant vertical stress. The vertical strain that occurs due to wetting is called percent swell. After the swelling has been completed the sample may be subjected to additional vertical load. The pressure that would be required to rescore the sample to its original height is termed the consolidation-swell swelling pressure. The constant volume test Soil sample is initially subjected to a prescribed vertical stress. During inundation the sample is confined from swelling and the stress that is required to prevent swell is measured. The stress is termed the constant volume swelling pressure. Results normally plotted in the form of vertical strain as a function of the applied stress in a logarithmic scale 31
32 Determination of heave index C H 32
33 ASTM Standard Loaded Swell Tests ASTM D provides standards for the loaded swell test, Methods A, B and C. Method A A sample of fill material from the project is compacted into a lab specimen at the field specified dry unit weight and water content, placed in consolidometer. The specimen is loaded to a vertical stress, equal to the overburden stress at the depth of fill. The specimen is inundated in water and allowed to swell Test is repeated with new specimens each loaded to different overburden stress. Potential swell calculated. 33
34 Loading steps followed in Method A 34
35 ASTM Standard Loaded Swell Tests (cont d) Method B Performed on undisturbed field specimens, specimens can be from fill material or natural material depending on the project. Specimen is placed in a consolidometer. The specimen is loaded to a vertical stress, equal to the overburden pressure plus the induced stress from structural foundation loads, and its deformation is measured. The specimen is inundated in water and allowed to swell, and the deformation is measured. Potential swell calculated. 35
36 Loading steps followed in Method B 36
37 ASTM Standard Loaded Swell Tests (cont d) Method C A test is run after Method A or Method B. An alternative way to determine the swell pressure, that is the vertical stress at which the sample returns to its original height. After swelling has completed and the soil has reached Point B in the figure in next slide, and then a standard consolidation test is performed to determine the post swelling deformation versus stress curve. The magnitude of the swell pressure determined using Method C will be different than that determined using either Method A or B. 37
38 Loading steps followed in Method C 38
39 Summary of Test Parameters for Test Methods A, B and C specified in ASTM D4546 (Coduto et al., 2015) 39
40 Typical classification of soil expansiveness based on loaded swell test, results at in-situ overburden stress (Snethen, 1984) 40
41 Expansion Index Test (ASTM D ) A soil specimen is remolded into a standard 102 mm (4.01 in) diameter, 24.5 mm (1 in) tall ring at a degree of saturation of about 50 percent. A surcharge load of 6.9 kpa (1 lb/in 2 ) is applied, and then the specimen is saturated and allowed to stand until the rate of swelling reaches a certain value or for 24 h. The percentage of free swell may be expressed as s w free % = h H (100) The amount of swell is expressed in terms of the expansion index, EI 41
42 Interpretation of Expansion Index Test Results (ASTM D ) 42
43 Empirical correlations between swell potential and different combinations of basic engineering properties (Vijayvergiya and Ghazzaly, 1973) 43
44 The free surface swell relationship developed by O Neill and Poormoayed (1980) S F = Z s w free % 44
45 Ground heave prediction equations (adapted from Azam and Chowdhury, 2013) Method Equation Material Parameter Description Fredlund et al. H H = C s log P P f f Final stress state, 1 + e 0 P s P s Corrected swelling pressure H Thickness of soil layer e 0 initial void ratio C s Swelling index Vanapalli and Lu H = C s H 1 + e 0 log KP f 10 C s C w w C w = 0.019e I p K = e 0.64( w) I p Plasticity index C w - Suction modulus ratio w Change in water content Briaud et al. H = H f w E w E w = w V/V o H f Thickness of expansive soil layer E w Shrinkage-swell modulus Dhowian H = H αg s G s Specific gravity w 1 + e f w i 0 α Volume compressibility factor Snethen C τ H = H A Bw 1 + e 0 log τ mf + ασ f 0 w f w i Water content change C τ = αg s /100B C τ Suction index w 0 Initial water content A Y-intercept of gravimetric SWCC B Slope of gravimetric SWCC τ mf Final matric suction α Compressibility factor σ f Final applied pressure 45
46 Summary of Empirical Heave Prediction (Nelson et al., 2015) 46
47 Contours plot of Swelling Potential in Louisiana (1) SP = I P 2.44 Swelling potential % Percentage of soil swell from optimum moisture content to the saturated moisture content I P = Plasticity index 47
48 Contours plot of Swelling Potential in Louisiana (2) 48
49 Characterization of expansive soils in Northern Louisiana 49
50 Soil Sampling 2833 Viking Dr, Bossier City, LA First United Pentecostal Church 50
51 Boring log from adjacent area (Ben Fernandez, LA DOTD, 08/15) 51
52 Dry density, ρ d (gm/cm³) Soil Compaction Lab Tests Liquid limit (LL) Plastic Limit (PL) Plasticity Index (PI) Activity (A c ) γ d(max) = 1.48 gm/cm Dry unit weight vs moisture content Zero air void unit weight standard proctor test Moisture content, w(%) 52
53 WP4-T test for dry side of SWCC Undisturbed soil sample (left), soil getting saturated before introducing to pressure plate (middle), saturated soil inside the pressure plate extractor (right) 53
54 Moisture (%) SWCC curve for Moreland clay in Northern Louisiana Gravimetric Moisture (%) Volumetric moisture (%) Suction (kpa) 54
55 Consolidation test Swelling pressure Ps = 170 kpa, The compression index C c = 0.36, and the swelling index C s =
56 Prediction of soil heave 56
57 Case history of a slab-on-grade floor on Regina clay, Canada (Vu and Fredlund, 2004) Investigation of volume change problems associated with the heave of a floor slab of a light industrial building in north-central Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada. Construction of the building and instrumentation took place during the month of August Instrumentation installed at the site included a deep benchmark, vertical movement gauges, and a neutron moisture meter access tube. Vertical ground movement was monitored at depths of 0.58, 0.85, and 2.39 m below original ground level. The building owner noticed heave and cracking of the floor slab in early August 1962, about a year after construction. The owner also noticed an unexpected increase in water consumption of approximately L. The loss of water was traced to a leak in a hot-water line beneath the floor slab, which was subsequently repaired. The location of the cracking and contours of heave for the floor slab are shown in next slide. 57
58 58
59 Geometry and boundary conditions (Vu and Fredlund, 2004) 59
60 Seepage analysis model (Vadose/W) Vadose/W model for seepage analysis. Suction based initial condition has been used with 888 kpa at surface and 12 kpa at bottom. A linear interpolation has been adopted to specify conditions along the depth profile. q= 3.12 X 10-9 ms -1 U w = -888 kpa q= 0 q= 0 U w = -888 kpa q= 0 q= 0 U w = -12 kpa 60
61 Elevation (m) Calibration/Validation 3 Pore water pressure profile for various times with depth Model has been calibrated by comparing results with Vu and Fredlund et al. (2004) findings. Suction along depth at various times obtained from Vadose/W analysis (top) shows close approximation with FlexPDE results (bottom) Pore-Water Pressure (kpa) 0 sec sec sec sec Initial 5 days 20 days 50 days 61
62 Heave Analysis Model Heave Analysis model without slab load. Same initial and boundary conditions as seepage analysis have been used. Structural support has also been used to ensure no horizontal or vertical movement. U w = -888 kpa q= 3.12 X 10-9 ms -1 q= 0 q= 0 Horizontal displacement= 0 U w = -888 kpa q= 0 q= 0 U w = -12 kpa Vertical displacement= 0 62
63 Heave Analysis Result Resulted heave dominated near the leak location. The contour is showing the heave. Occurred heave Leak water line 63
64 Heave/ vertical-displacement (m) Heaves at different times after leak 0.05 Heave at surface (without slab load) Initial 0 sec 5 days sec 20 days sec 50 days sec Distance (m) 64
65 Verification of Prediction models on the field performance of Geosynthetic Reinforced Pavements over Expansive Clay Subgrades Brief descriptions of the field investigation program Field investigation -- A comprehensive field program involving 32 pavement test sections with various combinations of reinforcements. Texas Farm-to-Market Road No.2 (FM 2), located in the Grimes County, southeast part of Texas. The field testing program included unreinforced and reinforced sections. The reinforced section further consisted of one of the three types of geosynthetic reinforcements i.e., geogrid type 1 (G1) or geogrid type 2 (G2) or a geotextile (G3). The field program includes moisture sensor profiles, which were installed in both horizontal and vertical direction below the pavement during its construction. (Zornberg, et al. 2010) 65
66 Moisture sensor (a) Horizontal profile (b) Vertical profile below the pavement 66
67 Seepage analysis model (Vadose/W) Vadose/W model for seepage analysis. Suction based initial condition has been used. Suction value at surface to 4m depth with a 0.5m interval obtained from Zornberg et al. paper used as initial condition. Hydraulic boundary has been forced by time dependent climate data and unit flux of 3.935e-8 m/s at two ditches. At all other locations no flux boundary condition has been used. Unit flux = 3.935e-8 m/s Unit flux = 3.935e-8 m/s q= 0 q= 0 q= 0 Climate boundary q= 0 Climate boundary q= 0 67
68 Depth (m) Water Content result(ongoing research): The purpose of this study is to validate the measured gravimetric water content at various depth at field with numerical simulation by Vadose/W. The top and bottom parts of numerical simulations result closely validate with field data. The validation for rest of the curve is under current research. Gravimetric Water Content Profile (Station 199) Gravimetric water Content January 1 August Gravimetric water content profiles from the boreholes: Station
69 Development of a Mechanistic-based Design Method for Geosynthetic- Reinforced Pavement on Expansive Soils 69
70 70
71 Heave-vertical load relationship 71
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