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1 This file is part f the fllwing reference: Hrsfall, N. (1987) Living in rainfrest: the prehistric ccupatin f Nrth Queensland's humid trpics. PhD thesis, James Ck University. Access t this file is available frm: If yu believe that this wrk cnstitutes a cpyright infringement, please cntact ResearchOnline@jcu.edu.au and qute

2 LIVING IN RAINFOREST: the prehistric ccupatin f Nrth Queensland's humid trpics Vlume 2 Thesis sub~itted by N. Hrsfall BSc(Qld) BA(Hns)(Qld) in March 1987 fr the degree f Dctr f Philsphy in the Department f Behaviural Science at James Ck University f Nrth Queensland

3 ix LIST OF FIGURES The humid trpics f nrtheast Queensland: twns and rivers. Distributin f rainfrests in eastern Australia tday: trpical, subtrpical and temperate. Seasnal distributin f rainfal I at varius lcalities in the humid trpical regin. Annual average rainfall ishyets (mm). Tpgraphy f the humid trpical regin. Gelgy f the humid trpical regin. Distributin f the majr vegetatin types in the study area between Cairns and Innisfail. Results f pl len analyses at tw sites n the Athertn Tableland: variatins in vegetatin type and rainfal I. Pssible rainfrest refuge areas in nrtheast Queensland. Past distributin f rainfrest in Australia and New Guinea estimated by hypthetical cl imate mdel ling. Tribal territries. Language grup bundaries. Reductin chart layut. Lcatin f sites recrded in rainfrest district between Cktwn and Mssman. Lcatin f sites recrded in rainfrest district between Cairns and Innisfai1. Lcatin f sites recrded in rainfrest district between Innisfail and Ingham~ Rute f the Yidinjdji trai 1 shwing seven campsites. Jiyer Cave. A. General plan. B. Prfile. Plan f Jiyer Cave shwing psitin f paintings, surface artefacts and excavatins. Jiyer Cave paintings. Jiyer Cave: western and.eastern sectins f K14 and K13S. Jiyer Cave: eastern and suthern sectins f G12 and GllS. Jiyer Cave: western and nrthern sectins f H18 and H19N. Jiyer Cave: radicarbn ages pltted against depth. Jiyer Cave: vertical distributin f charcal by weight. Jiyer Cave: vertical distributin f bne by we i ght. Jlyer Cave: prprtins f unburnt/burnt/calcined bne. Jiyer Cave: verticaj distributin f she] 1 by we i gh t. Jiyer Cave: vertical distributin f eggshej 1 by weight

4 x List f Figures (cnt.) Jiyer Cave: vertical distributin f quartz artefacts by numbers. Jiyer Cave, G12: depsitin rates fr charcal and quartz artefacts. Jiyer Cave, G12: reductin chart fr quartz artefacts frm spits 4 & 5. Jiyer Cave, G12: reductin chart fr quartz artefacts frm spits Jiyer Cave: weight range fr used and unused pebbles. Jiyer Cave: distributin f utilised pebbles. Jiyer Cave: grund-edge basalt flake. Jiyer Cave, G12: reductin chart fr nn-quartz artefacts. Mulgrave River Site 1 (MR1): plan f site. MR1: eastern sectin f sunding (Xl). Mulgrave River Site 2 (MR2): plan f site. MR2: nrthern and eastern sectins f sundi ng (F9). MR2: eastern and suthern sectins f main excavatins (.El1, E13, H14) MR2: radicarbn ages pltted against depth. 379 MR2: vertical distributin f shell by weight. 380 MR2: vertical distributin f charcal and 381 nutshel Is by weight. MR2: verticaj distributin f quartz artefacts by numbers. MR2, E13: reductin chart fr quartz artefacts frm spits 6 & 7. MR2, E13: reductin chart fr quartz artefacts frm spits MR2~ plan f site shwing lcatin f surface implements and pssible artefacts. Bramstn Beach Midden 1 (BBM1): plan t site. BBM1: site prfile. BBM1: nrthern sectins f M7, MI0 & ~28. BBM1: reductin chart fr al I quartz artefacts in Table 8.4. SF1: plan f site. SF1: nrthern sectins t sundings. SF2: plan f site. SF2: nrthern sectins f sundings. Weight range fr whle grund-edge implements frm museum and private cllectins. Weight range fr uti lised pebbles frm museum and private cllectins. Weight range tr unmdified pebbles frm museum and private cl lectins. Types f flat grund edges. Quartz cre frm Stager?rlva~e C!!ectin

5 xi LIST OF TABLES Annual rainfal 1 Mean dal ly temperatures. Main vegetatin types in nrtheast Queensland. Mammals f the humid trpics. Deaths in the rainfrest district attributable t Abriginal attack. /Tribes/ and languages in the rainfrest district f nrtheast Queensland. Ppulatin figures (1897). Estimated pre-cntact ppulatin density. Fd plant species f nrtheast Queensland. Plant species with nn-fd uses in nrtheast Queensland. Items exchanged by Gungganjdji peple with their neighburs. Ntes n jurneys int Jiyer Cave Excavatin parameters. List f recrded rainfrest sites. Types f sites recrded in rainfrest district. Sme plant species fund near Jiyer Cave. Radicarbn ages fr Jiyer Cave. Jiyer Cave, G12: quantitative data (except stne artefacts). Jiyer Cave, Gl1S: quantitative data (except stne artefacts). Jiyer Cave, K14: quantitative data (except stne artefacts). Jiyer Cave, K13S: quantitative data (except stne artefacts). Jiyer Cave, H18: quantitative data (except stne artefacts). Jiyer Cave, H19N: quantitative data (except stne artefacts). Identificatin f plant remains frm Jiyer Cave. Jiyer Cave: distributin ~f excavated material between squares. Faunal list, Jiyer Cave excavatins. Jiyer Cave, G12: quartz artefacts. Jiyer Cave, Gl1S: quartz artefacts. Jiyer Cave. H18: quartz ~rtefacts. Jiyer Cave, H19N: quartz artefacts. Jiyer Cave, K14: quartz artefacts. Jlyer Cave, G12: depsitin rates fr charcal and quartz artefacts. Jiyer Cave: grindstnes. Jiyer Cave: whle pebbles, uti 1 ised and unmdified. Jiyer Cave: brken pebbles, uti 1 ised and unmdified. Jiyer Cave: grund and pl ished artefacts. Jiyer Cave: nn-quartz flaked artefacts, retuched r used. Jiyer Cave: nn-quartz flaked artefacts, nt retuched r used

6 xii List f Tables (cnt.) Sme plant species nted near the Mulgrave River archaelgical sites. Radicarbn ages fr Mulgrave River sites. Plant remains frm Mulgrave River excavatin sites. MR1, F9 (sunding): quantitative data. MR2, Ell: quantitative data. MR2. E13: quantitative data. MR2, H14: quantitative data. MR2: size f quartz artefacts. MR2 excavatins: stne artefacts and prbable manuprts, nn-quartz. MR2: surface implements and pssible artefacts. Radicarbn ages fr Bramstn Beach Midden 1 (BBM1) Bramstn Beach Midden 1: quantitative data. 405 BBM1: identificatin f shell species in M BBM1: quartz artefacts. 407 Stager Farm sites: quartz artefacts. 408 Surface cl lectins frm nrtheast Queensland. 414 Prvenance f artefacts in surface 415 cl lectins. Grund-edge knives frm rainfrest cllectins. Grund-edge chisels frm rainfrest cllectins Artefact categries fund in excavatin sites. 420 Plants with txic substances, 431 apparently eaten raw. Plants with txic substances, eaten raw r cked. Fd plants eaten in nrtheast Queensland after alternate rasting and punding. Fd plants eaten in nrtheast Queensland after washing r leaching. Summary f fd prcessing techniques in nrtheast Queensland. Nutritinal values fr sme nxius fd plants. Availability f sme txic fd plants. Txic fd plants eaten in nrtheast Queensland; apparent reginal varictin in preference. Sme Australian nxius fd plants als eaten in ther cuntries

7 xiii LIST OF PLATES Frntispiece: Jiyer Cave, a rckshelter in lwland rainfrest n the Russell River Campsite n a riverbank, Nrth Queensland. A prun in the Tully district. Cnstructin f a rainfrest hut near Athertn. Hut thatched with fan palm leaves in the Cairns district. Grup f Abrigines near the Bellenden-Ker Range. Grup f Abrigines, Russell River district. Lg raft, Tully district. Dugut cane with single utrigger, Russell River Stages in the manufacture f shel I fishhks, 305 Dunk Island. Abriginal campsite, Nrth Queensland. 305 Make-shift sieve made frm flyscreen, lawyer 309 cane and wire, used at Jiyer Cave in Paired sieves used at Jiyer Cave in Nutshel Is belnging t rainfrest treea 310 f nrtheast Queensland. Charred plant remains frm excavated sites 311 in nrtheast Queensland rainfrests. Axe-grinding grves n Bramstn Beach. 320 Unusual stne arrangement near Tinar Creek. 320 Jiyer Cave: squares G12+G11 n left, 362 squares H18+H19 n right. Jiyer Cave: square G11 with grindstnes 362 and pebble tpstnes. Jiyer Cave: painting f anthrpmrphic 363 figure (IV in Figure 6.3). Apprximately 68 x 33 cm. Jiyer Cave: painting (III in Figure 6.3). 363 Apprximately 37 x 28 cm. Jiyer Cave: painting (I in Figure 6.3). 364 Apprximately 95 x 27 cm. Jiyer Cave: pecked grindstne with chre 364 and charcal depsits. Jiyer Cave: suth wall f square G Jiyer Cave: ncrth and east wal Is f 365 squares H18+H19N. Jiyer Cave: bne pint frm square K14 spit Jiyer Cave: shel I ring frm square G spit 2. Jiyer Cave: shel 1 scraper frm square H18 spit 3. Jiyer Cave: pecked grindstne f~m square G12 spit 2. Jiyer Cave: a naturally cncave piece f basalt cntaining a red chre depsit, frm square K14 spit

8 xiv List f Plates (cnt.) 'Jiyer Cave: prbable grindstne/anvil with pecking and smthing n flat surface, frm square Gll spit 7. Jiyer Cave: brken pebble with pecked area, pssibly frm use as an anvil, frm square H18 spit 2. Jiyer Cave: pebble artefact with smthed area (centre frnt) pssibly frm grinding use, frm square G11 surface. Jiyer Cave: pebble with battered end and edges, frm square H19 spit 4. Jiyer Cave: pebble with pecked r battered areas pssibly frm use as a hammerstne, frm square G12 spit 7. Jlyer Cave: a natural piece f basalt with plished faces and a facetted edge, frm square K14 spit 5. Jiyer Cave: a flaked piece f basalt frm square K14 spit 5. Jiyer Cave: steeply retuched basalt flake r flaked piece, frm square K14 spit 1. Jiyer Cave: unifacially retuched pebble flake frm square H19 spit 1. Jiyer Cave: a piece f clumnar basalt with bifacial flaking at ne end, frm square G12 spit 12. Jiyer Cave: pieces f chre with grund faces, frm square H19 spit 5 (left, red) and square G12 spit 28 (right, yel lw). Jiyer Cave: fishhk made frm a bent nail, frm square K13 spit 3. Mulgrave River 1: facing nrtheast. Mulgrave River 2: lking nrth frm creek. Mulgrave Rlver 2: nte numerus yung saplings and surface litter. Mu1grave River 2: pssible she1) artefact. Mulgrave River 2: square H14 spit 12. Nte gradual transitin between layers. Mulgrave River 2: square-ell spit 4, shwing rts in Layer 1. Mulgrave River 2: quartz crystal frm square H14 spit 6. Mulgrave River 2: /pllsher/ with grund faces and edges frm square Ell spit 4. Mulgrave Rlver 2: nutcracking anvi 1 n surface. Mulgrave River 2: cncave slab, pssibly a grindstne. Bramstn Beach Midden 1: facing suth, square M10 n right. Bramstn Beach Midden 1: facing nrth twards dense vegetatin n western edge f site. Bramstn Beach Midden 1: sutheast crner f square M ~,~

9 xv List f Plates (cnt.) Stager Farm 1: facing nrth, stne scatter n track near seated figure, sundings placed t right f track. Stager Farm 2: facing suth, sunding X in fregrund, sunding Y beynd. Grund-edge knife. Large grund-edge axe r /spl itter/. Grund-edge axe with central grve. Grund-edge axe with grve placed nearer t butt than t grund edge. Duble-ended grund-edge with central grve. Waisted axe, very weathered and with edge-grinding n lnger visible. Waisted and partly shuldered grund-edge axe. Grund-edge axe with pecked r battered areas pssibly frm use as an anvi 1. Grcved slate grindstne r /mrah/. Cncave grindstne with smthed wrking surface. Nutcracking anvil. Pebble artefact with smthing and tranverse striatins. Pebble artefact with indentatins in face. Pebble artefact with flattened faces frming a bevel Pebble artefact with grund sides and edge 428 frming a bevel Pebble artefact with tw areas f parallel striatins. Oyurka. Pebble half with flat grund edge. Waisted flaked /chpper/. Waisted flaked implement, pssibly a ham~er

10 APPENDIX A: Therising abut nrtheast Queensland 439 prehistry (Hrsfall 1984a) APPENDIX B: Excavatins at Jiyer Cave, nrtheast 448 Queensland: sme results <Hrsfall 1983) APPENDIX C: The prehistric ccupatin f 455 Australian rainfrests <Hrsfall 1984b) APPENDIX D: Details f prcessing techniquas fr 467 txic fd plants in nrtheast Queensland as given in early surces APPENDIX E: Index t sme cmmn plant n~t.cs 475 and synnyms REFERENCES 478

11 ~ k. R western.arg i n f rain f rest (pre-eurpean cntac t ) " '. -. MOSSMAN... : i.,' : "-, N 1 GOROONVALE ~II/~ 9ra "t' A IHER ron \.f '; I 'J~ ') BA8lNOA V r. i HALANOA \ \ HER8ERTON. i,.\! /\ ~\\ R\,.J\... '. MILLAA MILLAA /I J h 0 nstne R I RAVENSHOE CAROiiE LL,-. " f.0 ~inchinbrook Is INGHAM Figure 1.1. The humid trpics f n rtheast Queensla nd: twns and rivers.

12 km N 1 subtrpical Brisbant Figure 2.1. Distributin f rainfrests in eastern Australia tday: trpical, subtrpical and temperate. After Werren 1985; Ann 1975.

13 273 mm 750 ATHERTOH BABIHDA CAIRNS )FHAHJJASO ND IHHISFAIL IHGHAI'I j I1AREE8A I'IILLAR I1ILLAR MOSSMAN Figure 2.2. Seasnal distributin f rainfall at varius lcalities in t h e humid trpical r egi n ( ). Data frm Australian Bureau f Meter lgy (1966 ).

14 274 SO km N 1 Figure 2.3. Annual averag e r ainfall ishyets I ~m :. Frm Tracey (1982 : Figura 3 ).

15 '20 30 ~O km N 1 Peak 8ellenden Ker \J\ Bartle Frere :\J\ Innisfail ~ (asl) ~:;;; Hinchinbrk Is Figure 2.4. Tpgraphy f the humid trpical regin.

16 km N 1 Peak Ker rnnisf~il _ 8asal~ Granites, Add vlcanics Metamrphics Alluvium (+8each sands ) Figure 2.5. Gelgy f the humid trpical regi n.

17 km... I.. 't;t," N Figure 2.6. Distributin f the majr vegetatin types in the study area between Cairns and Innisfail. Frm Tracey and Webb Rainfrest (types 1-11) and Mixed Rainfrest and sclerphyll (types 12-13) Open Sclerphyll Frests and Wdlands (types 14-16) Vegetatin Cmplexes and Msaics (types 17-23) Cleared (Athertn Tableland and castal plains)

18 278 BROMFIELD SWAMP - c.2,500 - c. 5,OOO - c.8,500 - c.10, 500 Cmplex Ntphyll Vine Frest Cmplex Mesphyll Vine Frest Simple Ntphyll V. F Scl e ro!,hy 11 LYNCH'S CRATER 7 T - V - c.8,ooo _ c. 25,000 _ c. 38, 000 SNVF - CMYF Sclerphyll Lw Micrphyll Vine Frest + Araucaria - c. 50, 000 _ r..53,ooo CNVF + Araucaria "- D! - c.79, OOO - c. 85, 000 LMVF ",'rauc aria I SNVF - C MVF Simple Micrphyl l ivin e /Fe rn Frest en a \ "') -c.1 16,000 - c ISNVF - CMVF..... _ " "'''' U>... ""...,...,., " 0020.,.,'" " '" :r """ -< '"".. '< "... 3."" '" =' _ x 00.. '" '"., '" -, '" 'II Suggested annu al rainfall (min) mea~ Estil'ated time scale ' (i'~ars BP) Pssible vegetat i n cver near site Figure 2.7. Results f pllen analyses at tw sites n the Athertn Tableland (lcatins in Figure 2. 8 ) variatins in vegetatin type and rainfall. Frm Kershaw in Cventry et al. (1980 : Figure 12 ).

19 Figure 2.8. Pssible rainfrest refuge areas in nrtheast Queensland: a. cludy wet muntains (stippled) ; b. very wet lwlands within 2500 mm ishyets; c. wet castal grges and gallery frests n rivers as marked. 1. Brmfield Swamp; 2. Lynch's Crater. Frm Webb and Tracey (1981: Figure 9).

20 280 20, 000 BP S., l.v.l 58 blw prsnt Pr ecipitat i n 0.5. prs~nt Evap r,tin 0.8x prsnt Air t"p.r,ture 3.S C belw pr esnt 17, BP Sa l.y.l 120 b. l w pr,snt Pr.c i pitatin presnt ~ apratin pr.sent Air t.sp era tur. I.OC belw pr.sent 8; 000 BP S, lyel 30 blw prsnt Precipitatin I.S. prsnt Evapratin 1.0. present Air t.p.rature I.OC,bye present Pres ent distributin Figure 2.9. Past distributin f rainfrest in Australia and New Guinea accrding t hypt h et~cal climate mdelling by Nix and Kalma (1972: Figures 5.9 t 5.12 ). Stippling represents rainfrest.

21 281 Table 2.1 Annual rainfall Lcatin Athertn Babinda Cairns Cardwell Innisfail Mareeba Millaa Mi llaa Mssman Tully Yearly average (mm) Years f recrds Frm Australian Bureau f Meterlgy Table 2.2 Mean daily temperatures ( Celsius) Lcality Whle Year Jan max min max Cairns Cardwell Herbertn Innisfail Kairi (Athertn) Mareeba Pt Duglas (Mssman) July min Frm Australian Bureau f Meterlgy 1975.

22 282!Y.!. Rainfall Table 2.3 Main vegetatin types in nrtheast Queensland (Tracey 1982/ mapped by Tracey and Webb 1975). Altitude Sils Species* RAINFO:a:a:S'1' caplex aesphyll vine frest CKVF 1a very wet, wet lwlands, fthills basalts, basic vlcanics, clluvium, alluvia Alstnia schlaris Castanspermum australe Elaecarpus grandis Ficus spp ~ndra pubens Calamus spp Bwenia spectabilis Blechnum spp Alpinia spp Alcasia macrrrhiza Musa banksii Pths lngipes 1b very wet, cludy uplands basalts Beilschmiedia bancrftii Bwenia spectabilis Pths lngipes Ficus spp 1c mist, dry lwlands, gallery frests Alstnia schlaris Aleurites mluccana Castanspermum australe Elaecarpus grandis 2 Mesphyll vine frest MVF 2a very wet, wet lwlands, fthills granites, schists Archntphenix alexandrae Lepidzamia hpei Licuala ramsayi Randia fitzalani Bwenia spectabilis Calamus spp Pths lngipes 2b very wet, wet lwlands beach sands Elaecarpus grandis Ficus racemsa ~ntphenix alexandrae Entada scandens 3 Mesphyll vine frest with da.l.nant pal_ KVFDP 3a very wet lwlands, swamps basaltic, alluvial Archntphenix alexandrae Alstnia schlaris Elaecarpus bancrftii ~ grandis Blechnum indicum Flagellaria indica Pths lngipes 3b very wet lwlands, lw fthills schists granites Bwenia spectabilis Flagellaria indica Pths lngipes

23 283 Tab~e 2.3 (cntinued) ~ Rainfall Altitude Sils Species* 4 Seai-deciduua aeaphyll vine fre at SDMVF mist, dry lwlands, fthills granites, basalts Canarium australianum Terminalia sericarpa 5 Cmplex ntphyl~ vine frest CNVY Sa cludy wet highlands basalt, basic rcks Beilschmiedia bancrftii Caesalpinia subtrpica Calamus spp Pths lngipes Alcasla macrrrhiza Sb mist, dry lwlands, fthills, uplands basalts Aleurites mluccana Alstnia schlaris Castanspermum australe Elaecarpus gra~dis Ficus spp 6 Cmplex ntphyll vine frest CNVF with emergent Agathis rbusta mist fthills, uplands granites, schists Aleurites mluccana Ficus Calamus carytides 7 Htphyll vine frest HVF with Acacia emergenta 7a mist lwlands, fthills (castal) granites, schists Ficus micrcarpa Ganphyllum falcatum Mimusps!:...lengi Puteria sericea Flag~llaria indica 7b mist, dry lwlands beach sands as fr 7a 8 Siaple ntphyll vine frest SHVF with Agathia micrstachya cludy wet, uplands, mist highlands granites, schists, acid vlcanics Pdcarpus amarus Cyathea Pandanus Lmandra 10ngif11a Calamus spp 9 Siaple aicrphyll vine-fern frest MFF with Agathis atrpurpurea cludy wet highlands granites Archntphenix alexandrae 10 Siaple aicrphyll vine-fern thicket MFT cludy wet, mist tps f uplands & highlands granites Cyathea

24 284 ~able 2.3 (cntinued) ~ Rainfall Altitude Sils Species 11 Deciduus aicrphyll vine thicket DVT dry lwlands, fthills granite bulders Cchlspermum gillivraei Ficus spp NIXBD RAINFOREST AND SCLEROPHYLL (Clsed frest with sclerphyll emergents and c-dminants - mixed cmmunities representing different stages f successin) 12 Vine frests with Acacia 12a very wet, wet uplands, highlands granites, metamrphics see 2a, 2b 12b wet fthills metamrphics see 12a 12c very wet, wet lwlands, fthills me tam rphics see 12a Planchnella chartacea 12d cludy, wet uplands, highlands basalts t acid vlcanics see Sa, 8, 9 Cyathea Blechnum 13 Vine frests with Eucalyptus and Acacia 13a very wet, wet lwlands, fthills nt basalts see la, 2a Calphyllum Eupmatia laurina Gahnia aspera Meldinus australis 13b mist fthills, uplands nt basalts see 6, 8 Aleurites mluccana 13c wet, cludy wet uplands granite, acid vlcanics see 8, 9 Eupmatia laurina Calamus mti Runus 13d wet, mist fthills granite see 2a Alstnia schlaris Buchanania arbrascens Calamus spp Discrea transversa 13e very wet, wet lwlands, fthills granites, metamrphics, acid vlcanics see 2a Randia fitzalani Durandea jenkinsii Flagellaria indica 13f wet, mist uplands, highlands granites see 2a, 8 Eugenia Cyathea

25 285 ~able 2.3 (cntinued) Rainfall Altitude!1.!. OPEN SCLEROPHYLL FORESTS AND WOODLANDS Species 14 Tall pen frest and tall wdland - generally n western fringes f rainfrest 14a cludy, mist uplands, highlands granites, acid vlcanics Calamus au5traiis Flagellaria indica Rubus 14b drier than 14a as abve as abve Gahnia aspera Ficus spp 14c mist uplands, highlands basalts 14d mist uplands varius 15 Mediua pen frest and me diu. wdland 15a wet, very wet lwlands, pr drainage Pandanus Elaecharis Nymphaea gigantea 1Sb... et, mist fvthills granite Planchnia careya ~anarium australianum Cycas media 16 Mediua and lw wdland 16a- 16p mist t dry varius situatins, mainly granitic and metamrphic sils, extending int regins beynd the humid trpics. E1.,=--~ ~lanchnia media careya VEGETATION COMPLEXES AND MOSAICS 17 Castal beach ridges and swales 18 Swampy castal plains see 2a Eugenia hemilampra Syzygium rubignisum Canarium australianum Planchnia careta Nauclea riental is Pandanus Archntphenix alexandrae Licuala ramsayi Alstnia schlaris Elaecarpus grand!s Terminalia sericarpa Randia fitzalani 19 Castal fldplains and piedmnt slpes

26 286 Table 2.3 (cntinued) ~ Species 20 Sila with iapeded drainage n castal plains 21 Muntain rck pavements Xanthrrhea Pandanus Blechnum ind~cum Puteria sericea Lmandra lngiflia Xanthrrhea 22 Saline littral ~ne 22a 22b Mangrve frests Samphire flats Bruguiera gymnrrhiza Hisbiscus tiliaceus Barringtnia 23 Castal plains and fthills 23a 23b Freshwater swamps f castal plains Fire-degraded grassland with wdy regrwth Nymphaea spp Cyperus Lepirnia Planchnia careya Alstnia sch'aris This clumn lists sme f the plant species generally assciated with each vegetatin type, specifically thse knwn t have been util'sed by Abrigines. thugh nt necessarily in this regin.

27 Table 2.4 Mammals f the humid trpics, nrtheast Qtlee!1s1and. LAP.GE :W!!1ALS ()/, kg) SHALL MAH~IALS «500 g) Spcted-cailed Qull Un3dr~ed Rck-wallabv G,)<ir.Jan' 5 Rck-'..Jallaby' Red-le~ged Paderneln \.Ih i;juil Wallaby Agile Wallaby Eastern Grev ~angar (.)!:lr.jn l.ja 11.1 r Antilplne Wallar Swar.J ',.Ial.labv LumnLez Tre~-~an~ar Benneee's Tree-kangar Din~ Dugung S~1ALLIMED IV}! :W'll'IALS (500 g - Plat /pus EClldn.l ~~rlht?rn qul~ ~jrtherrl Brwn Band icet L0n~-~used Bandice C,)IIlI:Jun Rin)jcail POSS\L'll Ile:':lert R Ringeail Pssum Green Ringe,lii POSS\L'll Lt'murld Ringeail Pssum G [ l!.1 C (' r G 1 i d (' r Yellw-bellied Glider CdmCln Brusheail POSSll.ll :111:;,,:' R,JC-kangar Brush-tailed 3eteng RIJ rd'! sill, t tng BLick FLying-fx Spl!ctacl~d flying-fx W;lCl?r R.!t Whi:e-ciiled Rat Bldck-f()()(ed Tree-rae Dasvurus maculactls e.~.e.2~le inrnaca Peergale gdrnani Thvlgale stigmacica MaCrl)DUS pari'd M3CrDliS d g i i s MacrDus_gi~anceIl9 Macrptls r IIsttlS MacrDus anci~dinus Wallabia bicler. Dendrlagus lumhlc7.j iseii<jrotagus bennettianus Canis Eamiliaris ding Dugn!} du~ 4 kg) ~~~fl i t.t.!...lr.yi1-~_h UL~!U nus 1~}. b. vg l 51 31J S ;lcu 1 e a t:.::.2 9a~vuru!:l_ hai1~~ TsOdn macrurus p-i r alij.?te-:<i -lliis~ ~tui~~~:i ru~_p~ reg r i nu s P s eujch e i r:usl1erti'e re ens is PSetldOche T'rus---arcFi e r i HemibeITc!eus lemurides Petaurides vlans i'et3urtls australis 'i"rtch surus-~tll a Hvpsi~rv~ndn mschaeus He t tng iii~!1 ic i 11a t a ~:::J?..!'''ym!H!'!..Ju fe see n s Pterus pjece ~ijuscnsd ic iliacus ~l~.'):iiv~--cheys;jg Urmvs caudimactl 1 aeus s t er Mesembd?~s gurdi i RD RD RD* RD* RI RI RS RT RD* RD* RD* OF RI RD* OF RI RD Yellw-fted Ancec!l inus djl.i;j!c.llin!.!.l..:lw\;)cs RS Brwn An eech inus illu.ecllillij.s 5 eela rt i i RD Achertn Antechinus '\neechinus_321~!ll RD* Cmmn Dunnare Sminthnsis 111!rina ;'lhite-feed Dunnarc Snllnchpsis [eucus Red-cheeked Dunn;Hc Smi1lthsTSVi rg in fae Cmmn Planigale planigale ~aculaea Sugar Glider Peeauru~iceDs RI S~uirrel Glider Pee;J.urus nrflcensis Striped Pssum Dace'/lDs ita erivi qaca RD L(lng~tailed Pygmy-pssum C<?rcarteCu5 caudae:..!s - RD Feaehertail Glider Acrbates pvgmaeus Fawn-fted Melmvs Melmvs cervinies RS Grassland Melmvs' Melmv! Sur:ni Thrntn Peak ~I(,lmys ::ielmysti3jr;ljrus RD* Cmmn Rck-r.at ~y"~~1!.y.2rgurus Eastern Chestnut Muse Pseudt1l~..J?:.lCi 1 icaudacus Delicate Muse E:'ieu.J;)i';jY5...1ellc.1t.lllus Prehensile-tailed Rae Pgnmvs :~lli[)ilsu9 RD Bush Rat R::ic-c us--rlscei;::'s'--'---" RS Cape Yrk Rat Ra(t~~-~C~ \js RD Swamp Rat Rae_eus...l':l~reLug OF Canefield Rat Rattus srdidus Pale Field-rat Ractll:Sltumievr species f bats (Chirptera)----- Frm Australian Heritage Cmmissin (1986: Appendix L). Weight ranges frm Strahan (1983). Righthand clumn indicates degree f dependence n rainfrest envirnment fr 29 f the flightless species (Winter 1984). RD - rainfrest dependent RS - rainfrest se~idependent RI - rainfrese independent OF - tall pen frest * - unique t regin N 0:> -...)

28 288 a SOkm ~uluridji Figure 3.1. 'Tribal' territries accrding t Tinda1e (1974). Fig~re 3.2. L<1I;"uage bundaries acc~ding t Dixn (1975). Guluy, Nyagc.~i & Yirgay frm Dixn (1977). Dtted lines mark language bundaries [... here kn... n), slid lines indicate grups f related languages.

29 289 Table 3.1 Deaths in the rainfrest district attributable t Abriginal attack. Lcality t105. Reliability 'e6~ ;~7Q ~ 3 72 ~ 373 : 3 ~ ~882 : i33s la95 liinchinbrk r Palm 15 Wacervie~ (Card~ell) Gld Is Marla Ck Green Is Pint Cper Green Is Hinchinbrk Channel Daintree R Range west f Cairns King's Reef (Kurrimine) Smithfield (Cairns) Cardwell - Twnsville ~lulgrav'i! R Jhnst9ne R Herbertn Dist near Herbertn Mareeba - Cairns Russe 11 R \I It Mulg~ave ~ Mssman R Jhnstne R C Graftn Cktwn - Blmfield R Russell R Jhnstne R Inn is fa il Bar's Pcket Pert Duglas i\ussell R Werra (Herbertn) lwer Barrn R wrra (Herbertn) Myla (Cairns) Mareeba 4 E 1 ~l 2 E 14 E 2 E 2 Ab 3 E 1 M 1 E 2 E 3 E* 1 E 2 E? 1 Ab* 2 E 2 E 2 E* 1 M* 1 E 1 E 7 C* 9 C* 1 E* 1 E* 1 E* 1 E* 4 C* 1 E* 2 C 2 Ab* 2 C* 1 E 1 E* 1 C* 3 E* 1 Ab 1 E* 2 Ab 1 E* 1 C* P A A A A Pr A A A A A P A A A P P A A A Pr A A A P A A A A A A Pr A A A A A A A A Adapted frm Ls (1982: ). E Eurpean. C - Chinese, ~ a Me13nesian ('Kanaka'), Ab - Abriginal, A - accepted as cel~able reprt. Pr - prbably reliable, P a pssibly reliable. :0::a1 deaths listed here are 91 (54E, 26C, 3M, 8Ab), f which 71 a=e reliably reprted (IOPr. lop). Ls (1982) allcates 44 f ::-:ese deaths (16, 24C, 1M, JAb; 34A, 7Pr, 3P) t the '=a~nfrest frntier' (marked *). In this table I have include': ea:hs ccurring alng the rainfrest cast, many f which were :early attributable t the,ainfrest grups (e.g. che 14 frm ~e wreck f the Maria) as well as several deaths n mining ~e;'ds r pastratpropercies which are clse t the rainfrests ~jr in the territry f ne f the rainfrest grups (e.g.,,3:' Herbertn).

30 290 Table 3.2 'Tribes' and languages in the rainfrest district f nrtheast Queensland. 'Tribe'* (Tindale 1974) 'Tribe'* Linguistic grup Tindale's Tjapuka i Buluwai ldindji Kngkandj i Hadj andj i Wanjuru OJ irubal Ngatjan Hamu Dj iru Gulngai Kerarnai 'rainfrest cre' OJ abuganj dj i Buluwangjdji Yidinjdji Gungga nj d J i Madjanjdji (nt kn'.vt1) Djirbalngan, Djirbaldji Ngadj andj i (nne) Djirubagala H<l:l.anbara Giramavgan, Girc.mayngan Other rainfrest inhabitants Jungkurara Kkkulunggur I rukandj i Banjin Warakamat? Yirgandji Biyagirl Wa.gamaygan Other rainf.est languages/dialects Tribes adjacent t rainfrest Muluridji Barbaram/Hbarbaram Warungu Warungu Nawagi Ojabugay Bu 1\.,,, y Yidinj Gungr,1y 1-\adjay \~aniu{r) Ojirbal ~lgadjan : larnu Dji.u Gulngay Girarnay Kuku-Nyungkul** Gugu-Yalandj i Yirgay Iliyay \.Jargarnay Guluy Nyagali Mul.uridj i Hbaba.am Warungu i-ljawaygi Oja~ugay Yid,~nj Oyirbal Gug:-:-YaL:ndj i Djnbup,ny War~arnay Gugu-Yalandji Mbabaram Warungu Njawaygi * See Figures 3.1 and 3.2 fr apprximate tribal territries. ** Andersn (1983) - upper Annan River. N.B. There are slight vaciatins in spelling, depending n the rthgraphy used, e.g. Djirbal, Oyirbal; Kuku, Gugu.

31 291 Table 3.3 Ppulatin figures in 1897 (after Parry-Okeden) Grup name (Parr-y-Okeden 1897) Chckcull ) Orlw ) Bulum BuIum) Chewlie ) Klcutta ) Umbey Chum Chum Tinceree Walpll Eatn Huchen Tuffeigey Yellingie Yettkie Mka Kngangie Maimbie Wgg i 11 Gijw Kitba Warra Warra Ohal Deba Gerrah GLllah Blbra Warrybra Chirpa Marapunda Walinganba Kalmnge Krri Kirrama Balbarum Barbarum Wakkamn Jullanki t Kkandna Mu!.lridgey Wannacla Mancbunba Murra Okem Pp ? Prbable 'cribe' Prbable ltribe l (Tindale in (Harris 1978) Birtles 1967) (Mssman d iscrict) Buluwai Buluwai Buluwai Wulpura Ngatjan Ngatjan Tjapukai ldindji Irukandji Wanj uru Kngkandji Hamu Hamu Hamu Mamu Mamu Hamu Mamu Djiru Dj i ru Dj iru Djiru Ojirubal Gulngai Gulnga i Gulngai Gulngai Ngatjan ngatjan Tjapukai/Buluwai ldindji Hadjandji/Wanjuru Kngkandji Madjandji/Wanjuru Hamu Hamu Hamu ~Iamu ~Inmu Mamu Dj iru Djiru Djirubal Djirubal Djirubal Gulngai Gulngai Gulngai* Gulngai* Keramai Keramai Barbaram Barbaram Dj iru.bd 1 Wakaman Kk Patun Muluridj i Muluridj i (nt n map) (nt n map) (nt n map) (nt n map) Dj i rubal Djirubal Djirubal Djirubal * These tw grups were nt 1 isted in Harris' Table 1, but must have been included in the ppulatin figures.

32 292 Table 3.4 Estimated pre-cntact ppulatin density. Language grup estimated pp. Land Pp. Pp. de2sity ar~a km /pers. km Djabugay/Bulway Yidinj Gunggay Madjay/Wanjur(u) Ngadjan Djirbal OJ iru Mamu Gulngay SOC Giramay Ttal Frm Harris (1978:123). See Table 3.3 fr scurce f 18q7 ppul~tin figures. Territry areas frm Tind~le (1974). Spelling after Dixn (1976; see als Table 3.2).

33 Table 3.5 Fd plant species f nrtheast Queensland Species Uses Lcal tty \-Jher(' U8(' cecrded L AbellJlu cillis t'icllllleus L. iiz:r;;e;';<l r;;;'nna' c liiv{{l;;l:~ i\ c r 0 S t c h Ilfll S j1 e c: i~),s ur.!1 Will d. AlangiuIH viiis~i!i! (Illume) Wang. Alellrites lflillccantl (1..) \'IiUd. Iii lc)phyllls e'jhbe (I..) Blume i\ 1,) C il S i ii mil C' r () i'l' h i z a S c ht t AJpinia ilrct.iflri! F.Huell. Alpinia cilerlll~l, (l{.br.) Benth.,\;11')111<1111 d" L 1,I<'ily if. Hue L 1. 'I.!ull,r,i' Galln';1 F,H.Bail., "i~-(f.hul'll.) I'lanch.' ("rjtid~:;;!lld bll!ll\l (1..) Spl~eng.,\Iif i,j" I d.11 I Illlill Hi! i 11.. /qlllti11i','f 11)1!1 il (IllS (I..)~!':Ilg I I\i "II,',lI i I l,j,j,1 i I Ii II II ill",,'",il')i,i"i>i""'lii,<,,1"':;iii<li'dl' (F.I [""l.l.) H.WplldL. f\i'ri"ii,,"i,1 di':,'n;i[.,]i;1 (C.T.\ lhiur) [.. Jhnsn & BriggB,\ '11 "fllli! :.1'11 ifjd (F()I";:;lt.) Vic!~. j I s \'j J)iI i ' d i. i I ~,J I f L i i (F Ba ill,) C. T, Wh i t e Bit' ("!! )111:) i I \( I (I '11m nll.f: iil ()'.-.,! II i,j :;il( {'f!!,j I ~ ~.;. II()(Jk. ex 11()()k. f. 1'd'\lj!,lJi, '/ I!',Yill1t"rlli.z:1 (I..) Savigny in 1 alii. 1l<i('illll.lt, i,i II I" 'J'l";l' I'ns (Ill Ullll') 1l\11Tlie C.d,!:Illl",; 1'. ',. I:, I I d ::11 L'-'; j\ l~;! I', j I i (: II dll!ll '; ('.1 r\lt) I () i II i ('''jl r ' i; j 1 : I I!I \ I ~; i: 1111 hi llil! C ljll"j t' i,-; V.l'l. ~~', I 11 t' " ; l,',; Ll 1111' 1 I. "Iii, s I'X nc. Stem & rt rasted & eaten Fruit eaten Ruts rasted & eaten Fruit eaten Nut rasted & eaten (raw at I,ckhart), Fruit eaten Rhiz.mes repeatedly [,asted & punded t prduce edible cake Rhizme eaten raw F['uit eaten raw (nt at UJckhact), rhizme esten raw Fruit & rts eaten Fruit, stem & rt: eaten rasted Frui t eaten raw (Cktwn). RIl',)[:s eaten hammered & rasted, nllt Cktn Fruit eaten raw Fruit eaten Tubers eaten rmj 01' n)asted Nuts I'ilseed & eau'n Shut edl't~n raw Ol~ r:asted I pith eaten at Lckhart Seed (nut) eaten raw Fruit caten after bdking & washirl)', Nut eaten afct!r rast ing & lead1 ing Rhizme eaten after l'ilsting & punding Rt eaten (nt Ck twn) Radicle eaten after rasting & leaching Fruit eaten l"l\<lel'b in drinkilli! I';,lter Fcuit e'lten Fruit and sijts eaten Shts rasted & eaten Fruit eaten Fruit eat ell Herber't R., C10ilCurt'y Cape Graftll Cape Graftn Ilerbertn Han'n R., Blmfield R., Cktwn, Lckha rt Cape (;ra1'tll, Butchel"s Hill, PCB Athertn, TuUy R., Babinda, Blmfield R., CktWTl, C.Bedfrd, Twnsville, Rckhamptn, Bundaberg, Brisbane.Jhnstne R., Lckhart Cardwell, Dunk Is., CYP Bllflf eld, Cktwn, C.BedErd, Lckhart Cairns, CktVJll, C.Bedfl'li Bimf eld R., Ckcwn, CYP Tnlly R., Blmfield R. Athel'Ln, Cap'; Graftll, Dunk Is. BI'h)lIlfi.l'Ld [{., Cktv/ll Canlw('ll., llund;lhel'1;, Brisbalw Cail'IIS, Dunk Is., TUl.1y ll (Lckhart.) [Junk I,,;., Ci<llMll, CYP, Stradbr'\ce Is., 'j'cl\'jll S v ill. e BelLenden Ker, Car-dlvell, TulLy R. Tully R., R(,<1 [g., HOl'etn Bay Cape Graftn, Cairns, Bellenden Ker Tully R., COO\cCOIJll, CYP, Stradbrke Is., Bundabi"rg Cape Graftn, Blmfield R., Cktwn, CYI' Athertn, Tully R., Blmf Leld R., PCB, Cktwn, C.lledfl'd Cairns, Barrn R., Ill.mfil'ld R., Ckt.()wn Cainls, AthenOll, Blmfield R., CktO\<Ill N l.o Athertll, Tull.y R., BatTOn R. ('0 Blmfield R., Ckt()wn, C.Bedfurd Cape C;rilft:n

34 Table 3.5 (cnt.) Species Uses LOCH 1 i.1 Y when, use recurded ') I, 2 'l 2 ) C;'l'piHis humist ~;(lppdr~is ()~ ~).(ti~}~ Cast::frlOSpt.!nnulI) al~~ A.Cunn.& Fraser ex Hk. r.jt.i.j Cll'tlldCiciea (F.t luc,l.l.) Dmin. lspr!l'l1luln gil1j Bench. 1',lia dicllll Frs. rdylitte t;,nn ndu'2 Kl.1nLh. r'),l'lc<ll'ya gi,d)l!!):i [JllJin. Curc,Jlig ensi[,) i R.Br. thl'd ilustra!i.s (R.Br.) Dmin. t. h e it w 01 j i.~ Ln') a (F. ~1\l e II.) Dam in. S \!led i (l- Sl;I"1Sl1---1at l)r'i \l~; { Sl \l~t t\! \1~ [~. F.~h.1l'1.1. \'[,ls,)jiici pnll'i"l1~ [').0,:,,[',,;1 h,tlhif,'r.j L. V:H'.b\llbif~GJ [""' 'il(,.1 i"tllih'ra L. var,'21.il)',illii (F.M.Bai.l.) Prain & Budd11 \)j", ;cre,;l tl... ":; R.Br. f~:ld(';it)!111s J at j fll L. 1/1;1("'(';11'1)1''; ijdll<', I:ii F.t luell. & F.M.Buill. El""'''','J''I)lI'' )'.I':""lis F.Huell. E I ",,,.. 111I i," cllll" i s (!lurhi. f.) '1'1' i.n. ex Hensch. t<lhii tlld I j p\lht'~l~; t'll! issll. 1':llcli lil.ll'" I' Jll1l> I,;I.,"1i i. (F.H.Bai!..) C.T.\.Jhit:t~ & \.J.n.Francis 1':llldd.f 1'1J,I",:"I"jd0'8 (L.) Hen:. i':pil,r('ldlllll!l illirdiji l~ SChLt.. Elll'<lIlI.JI i.r Li<lrill;l R.Br. Ilili" "i>i<1.';;1 Elldi. j "1:;,I (ill"i('''',i TI1II11h. Fj,""; fr I:;,'ri Hi'!. l'i"<1'; Ilis[d.!; Ficlis IlIi''''')I'III'P'' L.t' V;11', laliflia Crner Fi ('ii,; III i 1'1 <>ClIl'jI,1 I.. f. Fruit: eilten Frui.!: eaten Fruit (nut) eaten after rasl.ing /, leaching Rts eat-en afcet" n);]sling r't Rts ea ten rae,) Fnric eaten Rt.s eaten after leaching Fruit raw (nt nut) Rh i.zlnes roils ted & ell ten POllllding Pith f trunk tip eaten raw r rasted Sht rasted & eaten Fnlit (nuts) eal:en after' [,asting & leach lng Tubers eaten raw r rasted Fruit erlr.t~11 Yarn eaten after' uilking & leaching Tubers eaten deter baking & l flsting Yalll CaLef) r()ijslell ()( raw. Frui.t eaten Nul: eaten raw Frui.t eaten raw Tubers e.lt:en raw r l:asted NUL eaten after l'asting & leaching Nut: eaten after rasting & leaching ('I) Fruit (seed) eaten ilftel' rasting & leaching Stem fr fd Fruit eaten Fruit eaten Frui.t eilten Fruit eaten Fruit & leaves eaten raw Fnli t eaten Fruit eaten Cape Graftn ALhert'n Atlwl'l Oil, TIII!.y R., Cape Graftn, Barrn R. llej.l'"lldl~ll K,'I:, RusseLl R., Bl.lllfield R., COOkCOWIl, 1\1llldililel'g, Brisban(! \I(>ll.(,l1dt'1l 1\"1''1, Ckt()wn, C.Bedfl'd Alire' t'! Oll, C:YI' Be1.J.enden 1<1'1', Frest Hill Tully R. Tul I Y dis t. ric t f)'mk 1s., Blmfield R., Ckr:wn, PCB, C.f\pdfnl, PilJlller R., Butciw1's liill, Laura Tully Ie Athertn AtherL'lll, Cape GrdfLlI, Tully R., Cktwn, Bl.lllfieid H., C.Hedfrd, Rckhalnptn, Cainls,!.cldli ll:t:, Laura TIIlly R., GYP, l~ckhi!lllptn Tully IL Bl.<llllfiel.d IL, CUkrO\vll, CYP Hl.mfield R., CYI' Acilel-I,)[1, CYI' Ather-tn Bellenden Ker Ilellunden 1(1'1', Cape Graftn, Athertn, Tu] l.y E., Blillfield R., Cktwn, C.lIe~lf)'(l, I.ckhact Tully R., BJlllfi,d.d R., CkcmVtl, CYP, RckhalllptC)f), Lcl<ha r't At.her:cn Ilellenden Ker, Blmfield R" Athertn, BatTOI! R. Cardwell, IIl.lufi.eld R." Ckt:()wn, CYP, TCHV!lsvi.lle, Lckhart Tully R. Bellend"ll Ker, Tully R. Cape Graftn, C. Bedfrd, Cape Yrk Cape Graftn Cape Gt'aftn N Tully R. l.d +::> Cape Craftn Cape GI'aftlJtI, CYP

35 Table 3.5 (cnt.) Species Uses Lcality \Jhere use recrded l 3 'j.) I,!"i~I!S t)l)etju~ Frst. f. ficus pjc\lro(:'ln!i~ F.r'fuell. Fi ('\1[) r,'ic(:lnsfl T,. i ' i C IJ S V" r- i "I' ii i: d B 1. Fic\ls 'J~rga' f{tdnw. ex!ll. e Ill'hy]luill kil"ui!! Blume r; reinia liie~jt()ni F.t1.Bail. [l b i ~; c,! s P ~' '.., II biscusrllo(ll~eti~l~l~ F.Mllell. II cksi>eacltiil,!:>~rlll~it:h(2u!!i.huell. II rnstedtia sctti;~[!~ (F.t fuell.) K.Schllm. ~l)()mt)c:.1 p?-01j.l,1~~ (L.) S",eet Ixra tim rc:nsis Dcne. Cir;i (iozillll a' fi~i;~l Hegel l.epirullli artlcl.t!,:lta (Retz.) Dmin. U(:llilLI Illllt.'11et:riLI1endl. & Drude f'l;lcad;ll'lia ",tielii] i (F.H.llai.!..) F.~1.Bail. j'l('j"dil1>j!i "ra is (F.t-1uell,.) Pl.en::(!. ]-!t.] ",J i Illl fz; l(: i. F. ~tue 11.' t Ie!,)(lii1Il!; t'ldfllls it i c t( I:)! Viil!!!,i jlilil!j:;, i);'; l' ll\f)g i!.. tlllrill,l, "il.rif,)]i,1 I.. rill~; > j p. ii,,,)(' I, I' i,:lil <II, i ':' I.. R.Er. (it,] '1;1:1) I 1):1(' i ft!r"a Cal'i'cn. il"i;;iiiii,;" 'lurllld,',il.,! (\-I.lIil1) L.Il.Bail. li'lpl I '~'I i,';)ils \.Jtl;:llilJ. 11'IlI,i'll':'1 'l'i<'l:iisl,j"diill~ F.r I.Bai 1.. l'dld'l"i"iii )',I],)"I,,;:yl,1l1l (F.~hlt,LI.) H.J.UlIll. 1),J! I (I I! II I 5? ~; I). l'd"ii,iii'''; d'i'lii iell,; \~,jrb. ",III,I,"IIIs 1,(,1'III('lll;[I,11S, R.llr. I'dlldlllll~ "pi 1',11 is R.IlI'. 1"I,;sil'l"r.. i'il'cida L. (inlnj<iuced) I'i 1','1' 1,)11, j drl:i-f'.t:i.lla i,l. I'LIIII'I",nl,l 1:1 hr()vjlli,,~ssialla (F.~llIell.) van Fyen 1'1,1111'1",,,... 1 I) Clhll'Lllc,;,;'; (V:-~111e 11.) I.e '1.11),'1'''1), 11.1 p'jljiill;i;li~;n;.!. (F.t!uell.) Pierre ex Dubard Fruit eaten Fruit eaten Fruit eaten Fruit eaten Fruit eaten Fl-uit eaten Fruit eaten? Rts eaten r-aw Rts eaten Seed eaten after l(aehing Fruit eaten raw Rhizme eaten (baked & punded) Fruit eaten Seeds eaten after trea~nent Tubers eaten Sht eaten Nills eaten after treatlllent Fruit eaten Fruit eaten Fruit (~aten Tubers eaten raw ur rods ted Fruit eaten Fnti t eaten F.~u it eatt'll,/ Fruit eaten rill" Sel,ds,JlH! rts eaten Buds & leafstalks eaten Seeds eaten Fl:uit eaten? Fruit eaten Fl-uit & seells e~ltel1, flwers in drillking water Fruit & seeds eat~[) Sl~eds & bilse f l,?aves eaten Fruit & seeds eaten Fruit eaten Fruit eaten ravi Fruit eaten Fruit eaten raw r rasted Fruit eaten (rasted?) Cllpe Graftn, Cape Melville Athl'l-cn Cardwell, Cktwn, Rckhaillptn, C.Melville '['Idly R. Cape (;rilfi.ol) Cape Graftn Bellenden Ket-? BL()Qlllfield R., Ckcwn, PCB, Cl[1curry Bellenden Ker?? Cdpe Graftn, Jhnstne R., Blmfield R., Lckhart: Cape Graftn, Ckt(),JIi, C.Bedfrd Cape Graftn, CYP Cai,l'IlS, He1.1enden Ker Cape Graftn Cairns, Tully R., Blmfield H. Ill!llenden Ker ildrr'n R., Tully R. Tully R Ilellenden Ker Russ<:ll R. III O'lIlI fi,;ld R., CktllV!t1, C.Ileclfnl, PCB, Palmer R. Cape (;raftn, CYP Blmfield R., Ckt:()wll. PCB, Lckhart Il]O()"lfi"ld R.!Junk Is Canh ;el l, Blllifield R., Cktwn, PallnL;r H, TOvJl1sville, I<ckhamptn, Gladstne, Clncul'ry, Nitclwll R. Card'vell, COkt:()\'iIl, Rckltillnptn BllllfLvld R., Ckrnwll, C.BedfnJ Cardvlell, Herbert H., CYP Jhnstne I<.? C;lpe Graftn C,")f~ Graft.n, Tul.ly R., Blll1fi.l'ld R., CYP, C"kt\OJll, RckhillllpCllll Cairns, Dunk Is., t'litchel! R., Fillmer R. Cai.n)s, Cape Yrk, NreLn Bay, Trres St. Dunk Is., Cape Yrk, Trt-es St. Tully R., (;001<1:0\0111 ALbertn Blllifield R. Barr1l R., Athertn, CktOWll, PCB BatTlm R., LauI-a, Aurukun N <..0 01

36 Table 3.5 (cnt.) Species Uses Lcality Hhece US(e recrded l Planchnia carey (F.Muell.) R.Knuth ~ j e I j;yn i urn t il110 rense (DC.) Leenh.!'OdOCIll"PliS amar,,;; Illume!)OJOCil rplls e Icl!.UO! R. lir. ex Hi rb. PC) ~h()s "],~ngle,,~ Sch t r: PnHlUS t"rnerana (F.~!.llail.) Kalkm. I) S y C Il<J t r i ;, 's jlnni IISi ~tcl f1,cl F. H Ba i 1. Rilndjafit;~r1lilnii (F.Muell.) F.Muell. ex Bellth.!{al;~Il(;a r;)r~';~~(f. Hue 1 L) t--iez RilOdmyrclls,~l!a..::r:()(~a..!p_a.. Benth. Hublls c<.)sifiius Sm. S("',,!"il''':)','; ld,jilt,hesideil (F.~luell.) Airy ShaH S',"""'C,JrI'"S 'lilst:raliensi:s Ellgl.i.n A.&C.de Candlle SI(ldlh'd ;J!\~;t. Sc.}rcll! I" q :: y~~ i llfll V:':,)'l' i lull i Udl i lldl \',' >; '!;: i lull! 1"(' ( 1\ I Is F. 1,lut! II. l:if:ida R.Br. I; rande \1a II'. ~'J'!lIj rlrulii,'rvt ilr",,1 'IX hl;';ind:l ",.; Ji, () I' h i' l' 'J 1 d r e >ll!, 'jl~! t 'I I () i (jl,!s (Bellch.) liart:iey & Pen-y (I..) O.Kulltze T",..,ill.O/i, """j"",,!,!,,, 1".I lll,d1. 'I r! I )(:11 i 1\ lj)-( H'I;,.;"~ H.'11,-. '1'1 H'lIilJdl Lr()I.'Jnii S(:hlt. V"lIld, ;i.t r, tusd(lknt.h.) LJlllill. V ii,"', I~ 1.11,1' 'I.~"I{. Bl'. X.l!)! ft\)rl'!\(l(':!. sp. Xi il11'lli:l 1;~l!'ri('ill1(1 L. Fruit eaten ray) Fruit eaten raw Fruit and/r &eeds eaten Fruit eaten Fruit eaten raw r rasted Nuts eaten Fruit eaten Fruit eaten rah at casted Fruit eaten Fruit eaten rah r rasted Fruit eaten rah Fruit eaten rah Fruit eaten Fruit eaten? Seeds eaten raw, cts (~a t en F'rui.t eaten Fruit eaten Frui.t eaten raw Fnlit eaten Frll i t eaten ravl r baked Rt i.'ileen aetet' preessing rasted Fruit eaten Rt rasted & eaten Tlibers rasted & eaten Yam eaten after rorlsting & po\lnding Fruit: eaten Base f leaf & shts eaten C~H, Fr\lit eaten Cape Graftn, Tully R., CYP, Palmer R., Clncurry, Mitchell R., Rckhamptll Gladstne Blmfield R., CktHn, Rckhamptn, Glads tne, Bunclabel'g Athertn, Ilell.enden Ker Cape Graftn, Ban"n R., Mll.ah Athertn, Tully R., Bellenden Ker, Herbert R., Jhnstne R. Barrn R., Blmnfield R. Athertl} Bel.1.enden Ker, IHmfi,eld R., CktHn Cape Graftn Cape Graftn, Tully R., Dunk Is., CktHn, Blmfield R., C.Bedfrd DUllk Is., Rekharllptll Blmfield R., CktOHIl, CYP Cape Graftn, Annan R., CktHn, C.Bedfrd, Trres St. lie I'he rtn Rnge Cape (;rafl.n, Ather'tll, COktOHfl, CYP, [{ckhalllptn Her'bertn Cape Graftn, At:!tectn, Barrn R., Blumfield R., CktOHIl Illl)lIlfield R., COOkrOyifl ALhercll, B,u:rl)ll R. Tully R., Dunk Is., Cape Gcaftll, CktOHll, Bll1lfield II., ~litc!te1.l. R., CYP, TOlTes St. Cape GI'aft:n, Illlflfield R., Cktmm, CYP, '[1:n,,, St., Lalll'a Blmfield R., Ckcwn, C.l\edfrd Can".;"I!., Cuklf"'IIl, C.B.. ~df()rd, PCB IHlllfiel.d R., Cukt:\<1!1, Cyp Cape Graftn, C.l\cdfl,'d, PCB Blmfield R., CktVJl1, C.Bedft'd, C:YP Blmfield R" Ckten, CYP, Rckhillllptlln Cilpe Graftn, B"I.1.enden Ker, DUllk Is, EII'II"h.>i,;J1licaL d;tta frlll Lilngevad (1983), \.Jllh I ii" C IlHing alu,rat: i.ns and addi t i.ns: 1 1<111I1"i;,J(dllical dald Illay nt relate t Queensland,\ddili'1!wl datil fr!ll Rth (1901b, 190L,) 1.1~1.'.It l\ell"llciell K,;r frm Bailey i.n Hestn (190l,) :, I),!l,' fr()11l IL~!.\'I.IJIx()n &, A.Irvine pel"s.clllm. 'J 1-1,"\,,1' ('\.t!. (19/,8) N 1O Nmenclature f11hs Beck (1985:Appendi.x 1),.;here this differs frm Langevad (1983), with sme revisins frm Flra f Australi.a (Vlumes 8,22 0"1 and 25) and A.Irvine (pers.c()iilill.). An inciex-()fi:f1e''1nre''ir-equently encunteced synnyms "nd cmmn names is givell in Appendix [~. N.B. CYP Cape Yrk Peninsula PCB ~ Princess C:lad,lltte B"y

37 Table 3.6 Plant species with nn-fd uses in nrtheast Queensland Species Uses Lcality where use recrded Abrus Aleur Willd. Alphitnia excelsa (Fenzl.) Bent:h. 0IEi:I_~,? sp. Alstnia schlaris R.Br. Archeit1 (()ili~~l2c~al~){~nd:-~ (F. Mue 11.) H. Wend 1. llreyrlhs.~~eitata ~l\lell Arg. BrlJt,;u.1:._",r~1_gJ'..f!ll:~_llr~L~! (L.) Savigny in Lam. Calilmus sp. Calamus dustrill is ~lart. C:ilL!lrl;;';; (:J~Y~~~_I~~_Oi A.Cunn. ~aj()i'hyl Jllm In()phyU\j~I: L. Candrium muelleri F.~1.Baill. C;ssyth,l gli;[;efli R.BI:. (;er[;,1')'; c:,g< T-(perr.) C.fl.Rb. l!l""dl'ndrllill i nenne L.(;aer:t:n ;~iitlvr:a_~2: Benth. (>)llllljl',"jillli,l h;it-tfawia (I..) t-h~r r. {'Ill d J,I d I \ IJld (HILI Vllr,;'. I 'II,j ',' I j Ill' I I 1111 f '1 F 1IIII II. j ) '! I". J' II,':1 1!l111 I _Iy I I".1'l'IV I I I \/lid,l,ji Ilitl 11J.ldldlllli 1.IIJdl. 11t'lld l'h-11 ill,:: sp. IH: r r i:; 51'. A Il(,ni skill, 1 t,;i t)b<:.r:il~ F.~1. Ha i 1. IktTis trifliala Lur. A!)":;III1,d i 11m IlIntJefIa-rUIli ili()sl'yn)s Il,~beCi!;j)~ -A.Cutln. ex Benth. -x Ili,,»yr')8 maritilil iluclild(':1 jeiikiii,;h (F.Muell.) Stapf f.:tal'carl'~ls g~a\l(hs F.~lue Il. Seeds fr decratin Oil frlil nut used as chre fixative Bark fr dye, leaves. hark & rts fr medicine Frllit is sprific Gum fr decratin and medicine Timber fr spears, leaves made int cntainers Leaves fr medicine Wd fr ars Cane fr impleffients, games, medicine Cane fr traps etc. Shts fr liledicine, cane fr bags Oil frm nut fr medicine & lub,-icant Gum/resin ~1ed ic ine Wd fr paddles Leaves & bark fr medicine Bark fr fihre/rpe, 'cttn' fr medicine Bark fr fibre/rpe (nels, lines) Bark f,.- fibn', wd f.1i- fil-(',;ril'kn ~I,'d i" 1,)(,'1 WOj)d f ill I f I j'nl i('i<n I.Pd f IOJ IIII I! t \' t 11(' 1\\1 II> i»1- IIIvd i (' i ",' ("111 I'll ill. (;1;,.1" I ')II!') Leaves as a narctic? Bark fr medicine Fish pisn Leaves & stem fr fish pisn Fish pisn Fruit fr fi.sh pisn Fish pisn Tendril fr fish-hk Nuts fr decratin Cardwell, Ck twn, CYP, Trres St. Ban-n R., Blmfield R., Cktwn, Lckhart Cairns, Cktwn, CYP, Mretn Bay Blmfield R. Babinda, Barrn R., Cairns Cairns, Dunk Is., Tully R. (Lckhart) Blmfield R. Tully R., Cktwn, CYP, Stradbrke Is., Bundaberg Athertn, Tully R., Blmfield R., PCB, Cktwn, C.Bedfrd Cairns, Barrn R., fllmfield R., Cktwn Cairns. Athertn, Blmfield R., Cktwn Cape Graftn, Cardwell, Dunk Is. Blmf ield R. Blmfield R. Russell R., CYP Blmfield R. AcheL-tn, CYP Bcllenden Ker7 II<'11"IHI,," K"I-. Fun',,1 liill '1'1111 Y H. T,dly H flll"'ii')i', C"nkl"WI) 1"/',1>,1111 IkII""d"lI K,',. '1'111 Iy H Tully R. Blmfield R. Edmntn Tully R., Herbert R., Cktwn Dunk Is. Cape Graftn, BLmfield R., Barrn R., Cktwn, C.Bedfrd Yarrabah TuHy R. Bellenden Ker, Cape Graftn, Athertn, Tully R., Blmfield R., Cktwtl, C.Bedfrd, Lckhart N ld '-J

38 T"hl(' '!.6 (COllt.) :;pl ('J. fj 1':1, ", II",j.'; d,li"j:: (1ll/I"lI.l.) TI'in. ex li('n~ch. I<Jd,Jd.1 p!j,!:;i,qlf)id/'~j (1..) r1t','r. 1',1 'iii I Inli" tlll"iii"i!:) (H.Bl.) I ",.,d.,y,' :'I'I"lldi,\:i V.11\1,,'II. j,. j ( 11 :. ~'I)' I; i q:1 J Ii 'J P j d, j I.. t 1,'j(:II~j rlli(,f/~cdj~p'! 1,.1" Fic'lS ubliq F()l'sL. f. Ficus ['[ls '.l Hiq. Fie:ll!) p!':llrcarijil F.1 lllell. Fi Cl1~; 1 ;ICl.lIllOSa T., " ", B l. [:1/.'1 eyli dri,ca (L.Beauv.) val'. majr.1~l"'.1 l'sl'lid,~ hu~'ta.rich.) RadLle '""melr.! ],)ng (U!.LiJ Labill. '"d'hlrl 1I11rltifira (R.Br.) J.Britt.!-1''' drdl'l:.:1 Ci!ll;jl'i\ls"~II\I,ll. At'g. 1-1, li" d/"d,ltij.:h 11, li,")i" illl.':lr;!i":3icd F.r'hlt'll. : 1 i ::j 1\ ~; I) P,; ( 11'! j L~ i.!.. 11, IHld )' i II,'1 II! t';l DC. "'''il l'd;;i.'~; iii'. ;'IIIl' LI 11'.1 I;;! ir'! l1l\\(!ll'ri Wdrbllrg ii,." I" ""j",,i.tli:; (I..) L. r J. 1 ]'11/, I J I!)\" t f1{) rl1),f l'iii,i.'i''':' ::1" ( \.J II ill) L. 1I Ba i.l. 1' ,111"" ilil'!.i!: ie'ls \');1 d).! dl();.;! iglhd pulj\.~-~~c~~.~.~~. Dumin. i!" '" "" \'.le' - Ii I) I L i1" d i "- ~ ~1 i 'i. 1)8('8 St:t'ITIS ft" \<leaving bags & mats Leavl's fr fish pi:;/1 Fnli L ft' II,ed i c j 1](' Bark fr fish pisn Gum f,"' hi,d lilll(, Hark ('01' fliln,/lwilh' Bat'k fr twine Bat'k fr twine Sap fr medicine Bark [t' blankets Bark fr [iilt'e/twine Wd fr shields, bark fr blankets Stems fr fishnets etc. Leaves fr fibre/ t\.jine Leaves? fr medicine Bark [r fihre/rpe & twine, wd fr f i r.es t lcks, taps ticks Leaves fr hags, medicine [<'ish pisn Leaves fr bags, haskets, medicine Leaves fr bags Bark fr fibn!/tlvine and calles, wd [r speal"s Bark l.,aves & shts fr fish pi SO'l Gum [0 r il<lhes i ve Wd fr Spt!ill'-thrw(!l' OI:namenLilJ ('I) Sap Ot- Il'l,dicine, fruit: eaten TO\ltlsville, nt ('lse\.;here r;um [01: 'I/l'd i cine Ilat'l< ft: medicine Leaf-fibre fr bags, wd fur sl'eal's Leaves fr bags etc. Leaves fr bdgs Fruit fr fish pisn Medicine LOUI!. i t'y wlll:l'l: US" t'ect'(h,d Tully R., Blmfi"ld R., Cktwn, CYP, Hnckhilllll'r.Otl, L,,,:khart, Cill'dw(!i L, III ""ill r i (' I dr. " Cnnl<l:()wn, CYP, T')WII~;vi 11<:, Lci,"art C':I!>t' (;1-;1 f LOll '1'\11 ly 1(., Ihllik I:;. '1'\111 y H. 'I'll 1 I Y H. Cape CLiftn, CYP Cape Craftn, Cape Melville Bl.lOfield Athel'tn cardwel.l, Cktnwl1, Rckhalllptn, C.~lelville Tully R. Tully R., CYP, Trres St., StrRdbrke Is. Russell R. Blmfield H., Ckt:()wn, PCB, Clncut'l.'Y Tully R., Dunk Is., Cktwn, CYP, Mretn Hay Tully R., C.HedfnJ liull R. Tul.ly R., 1l1lllfit;Jd R., Cktwn, Lckhart, C. Bed frd Illlllfi,eld R. Hellenden Kt't", Stradbrke Is. Tully R. Tully 1(, CilP" (:raftlln, eyl' Cat'dwl.,ll 1I1,)01ll[i,,1d IC, Ih11l1, PCB. Cape Melville, Is., CYP, Twnsville Ca i,n1s ))\Ink Ls., Canlwt'll, IlllJlllfieJd R., CI)"kt:wn, I'alm(;!" R, TCl\JnsviLle, Rckhalllptt1, Gladstne, C]llclIrr'y, ~1itchell R. Blmfield R., Ckt:\Jt1, C.l\edfrd Cape Graftn, Tully R., Blmfield R., eyi', Ck twn, Rekh,ulll'tn Cairns, Dunk Is., I Heclte!.] R., Palmer R. 110na ~l(ma, Bundalwrg N Cairns \.D 0)

39 Table 3.6 (cnt.) Specice" I'Lancli()[l<:lla!l0ilJlIlalliall_i_1 (F.~luell.) Pierre ex Dubard!'janchnia can'y_i! (F.J1uell.) R.Knuth p" I Y!; ': i as rl"i.1 i I! il rm s PUIlg;l(;lia pinnala (t.) P ern, P r,;rtllid uhf IJ i RIl:qdl idu[jh )("il SOnJIl:rdtid a S l' i 1:11 d_ h e s.1 SteplHllia japn Seen:,,1 ia 'I\ladd F.H. Ba i1. JHers Ternsr("'H'lnia cherrvi 1\;Ll-;r""lndlldra I.axi:fll'a (Bench.) Perk. Va Ilela:: 'i" r "I "Sil (fit' r1d'i-:-) Dm in. :\il!llh,)rrlj(l(,;j Sli. Uses Leaves & twigs fr medicine Bark ilnd r,)ts fr fish pisn, bark fr t\-line & Inedicille Gum Rts (& st,;ms '!) fr" fish pisn Wd f,)l' (in'sticks & speilr's Rts & Leaves fr medicine Wd fr canes Ruts fr medicine Hedicine Hark? fr fibre/twine Hilrk fr fisb pisn Wd fr firesticks Rt bark fr fibre/ tl-line \~()d fr firesti.cks, spears, resin fr adhesive Lca 1 i ty where use l'c'cl'ded Barrn R., LilllLI, i\ul'iii<llll Cape GraEtun, TuLly R., CYP, Palmer R., Clncurr:y, Hi tchej.i R., Rckhamptn, GLads tune TIIlIy R. Canh-JeJ.l, Ckc\>JIl, C.Bl'dfrd, PCB, Gladstne Tlllly R., CYP BlulTlfield R. Jhns tne R., Ck twn t ldreeba'! Bellenden Ker? Cape Graftn, Athertn, Cktwn, CYP, Rckharnptn Athertn Tully R. Cape Graftn, C.Bedf(lnl, PCB BLmfield R., C()\zten, CYP. Rckharnptn S'111l',, S: I.;rng, vad (198:3) il!: Jist ed in Queens I and t1llseurn catalgue ii"iil' lil:l.. r'll-e as fur Tilble 3.5. N.B. CYP PCB Cape Yrk Peni.nsuJ.a Princ('ss Charltte Bay N \.0 \.0

40 300 Items exch~dged Table 3.7 by Gungganjdji peple (Yarrabah) with their neighburs It e;ti BICOrnual dilly basket Grass bugle necklace Fur-prnged fishing spear Straight spear-thrwer (withut shell haft) T Prt Duglas, l'iulgrave R., Barrn R., Mareeba, Herbertn Mulgrave R., Russell R. Mulgrave R., Jhnstne R., upper Russell R., Clump Pt. Mulgrave R., Jhnstne R., Russell R. Bent spear-thrwer Large fighting shield Single-handed swrd ) ) ) Barrn R. and nrth Item Hurglass wven dilly-bag ) Rund-base basket ) Beeswax necklace ) Straight spear~thrwer ) (shell-hafted) ) bamb spear ) square nautilis shell necklace) cckat tp-knt headdress ) Frm Barrn R., Pt.Duglas and nrth swrd ) bmerang ) shield ) Mulgrave R and suth pssum-string armlets ) val pearlshell chest rnaments Surce: Rth (1910a:19).

41 Dlate Cansi te n a river b an~, Nrth Oueensland. ( ht~irl ~r., OM PE147 ) :':i!:~ ~..? :.!~r'.jr\ :~ -_ ~ Tui~y d ~ ~t r!c:.!..:~. : ns(l"'. ~' IJ :':' ~2 ;,

42 Plate C nstructi n f a rain f rest hu t near ~ the rt n. (C lcl gh? OM PE1 96) Pl ate Hut that che d with fa n palm leaves in the Cairns distri c t. Nte the bi c r nual basket. typical f the r ai nfrest di strict. ( OM PE 152j

43 Pla te 3.5. Grup f Abrigines near the Bellenden Ker Range. Nte the ~cka t feather headdresses, cicatrices n me n, large painted shieljs, w den ' s wrds I an d spears. (A t ki ns n, OM PE1 2i!Z) Plate Gr up f Abrigines, Russel l River district. Nt e the l arge shi el ds an d ' s wrds', cicatri ces and feathe r decratins. ( OM PEl84 )

44 Plate lg raft, Tully di stri ct. (Rt h, OM PE93)..:.. Plate 3. B. Dugut c ane with a singl e utrigge r, Ru ssell River. Nte the lng-han dled caddie and the curved spea r -thr 0 w~r, us ually us ed with fi sh spears. (C i clgt,?, ~ PEIBl )

45 Plate 3.9. Stages in the manufacture f shell fishhks, Dunk Island. (OM PE227) Plat e Campsite, Nrth Queenslan d. Nte the bicrnual baskets, wd en ' swrd', gr inds t ne s at lwer left, dme- shaped huts and als Eurpean g ds ( p ~ pe, tin bill y, blanket). (A tk insn, QM PE 163/2)

46 306 / ~: ~ ~~:' :~f:::<:> ::) ):: ::::::... " ptential c'r'e's' :. : ::,' :<::- G. h.tav. y.~u.ty./: ~\.~. :> ; :::: : r tgres s in li ne fr hea.i ly r educ d ""-.: ::.;.;.;»/:/:-:.:.:-:::-.,.,'., " li ne fr and fl ake ta.l! "~ pp r ximate 100 g. reference li ne... " ) length x bre~dth 12 0 Figure 4.1. Reductin ch~rt l~yut indic~ting areas.n eee different i.p lement! and sizes viii be pltted. fr. Witter (1984). Rectangle in lefthand carner indicates th e p~tin f this layut where th e lajrity f quartz artefacts exa.ied i n this thesis fall,

47 307 Table 4.1. Ntes n jurneys int Jiyer Cave, Number f ~ Persnnel* \~ e e k 1: Week 2: Week 1: 4 Week 2: 6 Cmments Intrductry visit. Did nt find direct rute in r ut (1.5 days each way). Fine weather initially, drizzle n last day. Preliminary trip t lcate direct rute and carry in sme equipment. Abandned because f injury and difficulty in lvcating tyack. Heavy rain. Carried in equipment and fd fr ne week. Again culd nt lcate direct rute and tk 1.5 days t reach site. Heavy rain. At end week helpers left t get supplies and e~crt secnd team. Fund direct rute ut, but had difficulties cming back t site. Weather clearing. At end f frtnight's excavatin walked ut n direct rute withut difficulty. T pick up rcst f finels nt able t be carried ut previusly. Fine weather, track clear. Preliminary trip t mark track and carry in equipment. Fine weather, rute lcated with little difficulty. Fine weather, track clear. At end f first week. tw returned t vehicle t cllect supplies and escrt tw mre helpers. At end f frtnip,ht, three left dwnriv, and the rest f us returned t the vehicle n Tableland. Mst f the finds and equipment cached n site Track clear, weather fine. Halfway thrugh frtnight, tw returned t vehicle t cllect supplies. They missed part f the track n the way ut. but returned withut incident. WaLked ut at end f excav~tin with sme finds and cquirmcnt, cachinp, the rcst. Helicpter frm C2ir~s int site t pick u finds and equipment (400kg). Helpers went ut dwnriver. I returned t Cairns with chpper and picked them up at exit pint. >; including self

48 Table 4.2 Excavatin parameters Site Area Area f exca~ated excav. units (m ) Spit 3D* Sed l.rn. Hesh depth recrd weighed s iz e Wet/dry sieve Time taken SF1 (:-1ay '82) cm x 60cm Scm n n 6mm dry 3 days SF2 ~:-1ay '82 ) cm x 60crr. Scm n n 6mm dry 2.5 days JC (Aug 82) 1.50 K14-1m x 1m KlJ - 1m x 50cm Scm y'!s n 110m upper - dry lwer - wct 2 weeks IWI (Nv '8n cm x 50cm 5cm n n 31um dry 3 days t1r2 (Nv '82 ) cm x 50cm Scm n n 3mm wee 2 days JC (Jul '83. upper - SOcm x 50cm Sep. 83) 3.00 middle - 1m x 50crn lwer - 1m x 1m SCIr. yes yes 6mm. 3mm \.;et 4 weeks B Bill (Oct '8 J) m x 1m Scm n yes 6rnm" 3mm dry 6 days!-ir2 (Aug '84) m )( 1m 'Scm yes yes 6mrn. Jmm wet 2 weeks * see text. fr deta Us w CD

49 - ~ ; '.... t'... '-... ' \.1,",, t- " I / ~ ",;1 ' ~.j ' ~!, '."""?"::.~. - '" Plate Make- s hif t s ieve made fr m flyscreen, law yer cane and wi r e. us ed at J :/er Cave in Plate Paired si eves used at Ji yer Cave in The sh e l ter IS ber :n d the tree n the left an d the Ru ssell River can be st! n t t~ e righ t.

50 P! ~~e Nutshells bel~ging t r dinfrest trees f nrtheast Queensland : t rw ; L <: t r ig ~t : Beil s l h~ i~ d~a lancrftii (yell w w al~u t), Elaecarpus bancrftii ' J : ~ ~s t a ne S. alm nd;, C'YPlccarya glabe lla (pis n waln ut ); bttm rw, left t '.~': : ~~d i2 ndra p a lm~r s tdnii (black walnut), Prumnpitys amarus (black pine), ~ :.. -! :t L. P C! ljc Cdnd {c a~dl~nut ).

51 Pla te 4.4. Charred plant remaln s frr. e>c2vated sites in nrtheas t Oueensland rainfres ts: tp left, Beilschmiedia ~ar.~rftii (yellw walnut); tp ri ght, Pandanus sp.; cen tre, unsrted nutshells ; bttm le ft, Elaecarpus banc r ftii (Jhn s tne R. almnd ) ; bttm right, E,diandra pubens (hairy walnu t ).

52 312 A Rc k shelter Open site c:: Shell midden 'Bra g r und ' ~ Stn" flshtrap A Carved tree f( ".. Stn" a rtefdcts 0 BUrl a 1 'CT Gr : ndlnq Grve, 0 51 t'? t eng ~a vl ng s lgn1t1cance 0 Campsite 0 Stne drrangement western margin f rainf rest /... 2 tv / '-.. " '." 8 12 A " km Figure 5.1. Lcat ins f sites recrded in rainfrest dis trl c ~ between ckt wn and ~ ss man.

53 _,i... --'. 313,,"""' 10, \ 20km I.... / IV / Barrn P.,., 2F24 19.=-~ ~lo. '~ ' ~ " : c,~ 32 ATHERTON I ". ~ L Barrine ~ 81 Eacha m High Is.~ 57 J... _., 58. :: RAVE~:SHO E 82- Figure Lcati ns f sites recrded i n rainf r est d~st~ : c t between Cairns and Innisfall. Fr key see Figure 5. 1.

54 314 S Jcr:nSl: c ne R / \ 115~ Dunk Is 1 14~1 \ \ I 69 0 ~ Ii 0',- ". CARDliELL 95.. Gld Is ~ \ ' ' I s l, I k m Figure 5,3. Lcatins f sites r ec r ded in r ainf r e st d l s t rict betwee n Innisfail a nd Ingham. F r key see Fi gure 5. 1.

55 315 ", \ \ \, \ I I N 2 3km boo \ Figure 5.4. Rute f the Yidinjdji trail shwing seven campsites. Nt all watercurses shwn. Dashed line marks the apprximate bundary between rainfrest and pen wdland.

56 Table 5.1 List f recrded rainfrest sites Hap* N. Sice type Lcali ty DAIA '82 Sice N. Des '85 Site N. Field Cde L t ] 1 l D ] Rckshelter, paintings Scune artefacts Burials, pst-cntact Significant site Shell midden Rckshelter, p3incings Shell midden Stne artefact Rckshelter, paintings Rckshelter, paintings Rckshelter. paintings, depsl~ Rckshelter. paintings, artefacts Burials, pst-cntact Stne artefact Burials, pst-cntact Stne artefacts Scne arrangement (?Abriginal) Rckshelter. paint ings Rckshelter, paintings Grinding grves (?Abriginal) Rckshelters (4, incl.next 37), paintings Hckshelter, paintings, depsit Rckshelter, paintings, 7depsit Rckshelter, paintings,?depsit Significant site RGck engravings Carved tree SCne artefacts Stne artefacts Rckshelter, paintings,?depsit Rckshelter, paintings, depsit Stne arrangement Significant sites (2), campuites (3), burials (3) Rckshelter, paintings Rckshelter, paintings, depsit Significant site Rckshelter, paintings RGckshelter, paintings RGckshelter, paintings Hel.env,lle Rssville Blmfield Raring Heg Falls upper Daintree R. upper Daintree R. lwer Daintree R. Hssman near He.Carbine near He.Carbine near Ht.Carbir e Hssman Grge Mssman Grge Rex. Range Mna Mna Hartley~1 Ck. near Ellis Beach Ell i 9 Beach Tank Rck Tank Hck Bare liill Bare Hill Bare HUl Ba ra Hi 11 Freshwater Ck. Redlynch Whitfield Range Freshwater Ck. Mt. Whitfield Kmbal Park Bessie Falls?Stney Ck. Yarrabah C. Graftn Kings Pt. Kings fleach Buddabad Ht. Turtle Mt. Turtle EP A63 EN A26 EN A31 EN AJO EN A29 EN A2l EN A20 EN A19 EN A27 EN Al FN AS FN A12 FN A6,9 FH AI< FH A10 FN A1) FN A14 FN Al5 FN A16 FN A7,8 FN AI. FN All FN A10 FN A3 FN AS FM All FM A12 EP A63 EN A2S EN A28 EN A29 EN AJO EN A2l EN A20 EN A19 EN A26 EN A1 FN A10 FN A9 fn AS F11 AJ HI A9 FN A10 fn All fn A12 FN A13 FN A6 FN A3 FN A8 FN A7 fn A2 FN At. FN A16 FN A1S.17 FN Al FM A10 FM All

57 Table 5.t (cnt.) Map* N. Site descriptin LcaU ty DAIA '82 Site N. DCS '85 Site N. Field Cde 40 Rckshelter, paintings 41 Rckshelter, paintings 42 Rckshelter, paintings 43 Stne arrangement (?Abriginal) 44 Stne arrangement (?Abriginal) 45 Rckshelter, paintings 46 Rckshelter, paintings 47 Carved tree 1.8 Rckshelter, paint ings, artefacts 49 Rckshelter, paintings, artefacts 50 Stne artefacts 51 Rckshelter, painti~gs 52 Rckshelter, paintings 53 Rckshelter, paintings 54 Rckshelter, paintings 55 5t:. artefacts 56 Burials 57 Stne fishtrap 58 'Bra grund' 59 Grinding grves 60 Stne artefacts 61 'Bra grund', carved tree, campsite 62 C,lr:ved tree 63 'Bra grund' 64 Carved tree 65 'Bra grund' 66 Carved tree 67 Car'ved tree 68 Burials, pst-cntact 69 Significant site 70 Ruckshelter, paintings 71 Ruckshelter, paintings, depsit 72 Huckshelter, paintings, depsit n R,),:kshelter, paintings, der;sit 74 Ruckshelter, paintings 75 Ruckshelter, paintings 76 Shell middens (4), stn= fishtraps (3) 77 Shell midden 78 Shell midden 79 Ruckshelter, paintings, depsit He. Turtle Ht. Turtle Tinar Dam Tinar Dam Tinar Ck. Tinar Dam Tinar Dam Tinar Darn Walsh's Pyramid Walsh's Pyramid upper Hulgrave R. Athertn Athertn Athertn Athertn upper Barrn R. Halanda High Is. Gurka Gurka Brarnstn Beach Brarnstn Beach N. Jhnstne R. Vine Ck., Ravenshe Vine Ck., Ravenshe Jrdan Ck. Chunea Culpa Ech Ck. Mt. Mackay, Tully Murray Falls Ht. Carr\lchan Kennedy C Kennedy A Kennedy B Kennedy [) Gcwrie Ck. Scraggy Pt. Rund Hill Leefe Pk. Rung0 F11 Al3 F11 Al4 FM A2 FM Al8 FM A3 F11 A5 FH Al5 fl1al6 FM A6 EM A24 EM A25 EM A40 EM A41 Fl1 A10 FM A7 F11 A8 FL A9 FL A22 FL All FL A9, 16 FL AIO,I? FL Al9 FL Al8 FL A28 FL A25 FL A26 FL Al,21 F11 Al3 F11 AlL, F11 Al FH Al8 F11 A2 F11 A4 F11 AI5 FM Al6 FM AS EM A24 EM A25 EM A41 El1 A42 FM A31 FM A3J Fl1 A 12 FM A6,8 FM AJ9 FM A7 FM A3l Fl1 A38 FM A36 FL Al9 FL All FL A9 FL AIO FL All FL Al6 FL A23 FL A20 FL A21 FL Al w -" '-.I

58 Table 5. t (cnt:.) Map* N. Site descriptin Lcality DAIA '82 Site N. Des 8 5 Site N. Field Cde :! 10) 101, Ill Rckshelter, paintings, depsit 'Bra grund' Stne artefacts Carved trees, stne artefacts Shell midden 'Bra grund' Open aiee Open site Open site Rckshelter, painci'ngs, depsit: Open aite Stne artefacts Shell midden Shell scatter Shell midden Stne fisherap Shell midden Scne fishtraps (4) Stne fishtrap Stne fishtraps (2) Stne fishtraps (2) Stne fish trap Shell midden She l.l midden Shell midden Rckshelter, depsit Rckshelter, depsit Shell midden Rckshelter, paintings, depsit Shell middens (2) Rckshelter, paintings Grinding grve? Open site Shell midden Shell midden Shell midden Campsites, significant sites, artefacts Rung L. Barrine Millaa Mi11aa Maalan Ramsay Bay Gldsbrugh lwer Mulgrave R. lwer Mulgrave R. lwer Mulgrave R. Jiyer Cave Babinda Babinda Bramstn Beach Bramstn Beach Bramstn Beach Gld Is. Gld Is. Miss inary B'1Y Miss Lnary Bay Missinary Bay near Cardwell Scraggy Pt. Ramsay Bay Ramsay Bay Ramsav Bay Hinchinbrk Is. Hinchinbrk Is. near Cardwell Rund Hi 11 Ze Bav upper Russell R. Mt. Bartle-Frere Murilyan Harbur N. Missin Beach Dunk Is. Dunk Is. Yidinjdj i tra.il * Map N: see Figures 5.1,5.2 and 5.3 fr: appr.ximate lcatin f sites. FL A2, 23,24 FL A2 HI A29 FM Al7 FM A2a FL A24 FM A25 FM A26 FM A19 FM AI7 FM A20 FM A21 FM A2l, FM A22 FM A23 FM MO 1-11(3 MRI HR2 MRS JC SFI SF2 BBMI BllM2 BBM3 RR BF w OJ

59 319 Table 5.2 Types f sites recrded in rainfrest district f nrtheast Queensland Type f site N. (range) Rckshelters with paintings Rckshelters with depsits Shell middens Stne fish traps Stne artefact scatters r finds Grinding grves and engravings Open sites Campsites 'Bra grunds' Carved trees Burials Sites f significance t Abrigines Stne arrangements Ttal (range)

60 Plate 5.1. Ax e-grin di ng grves n Bramst n Beach (Si te N.59 ). Plat t Unu s ual stne arrangement near l inar Creek (S ite N.44 ), pssib l y nt f Ab r ig i na l r Igin. (S. St. C 1 Du d)

61 321 A 5 10m Russell River B ~~.,.,..,.~'"""' Russell 5 10 rr Figure 6.1. Jiyer Cave. A. General plan. Original drawing by Campbell. B. Prfile.

62 JIYER CAVE 5m.~ 0 1.tP Figure 6.2. Jiyer Cave: Plan s hwing psitin f paintings, excavatins and surface implements. Frm riginal by Campbell. St... p upward slpe ~... b ---. i c '". C) ". - "'"'... "'.~lj,: '\)~~i" - ' i. OJ,,.r..._ "-',., J:..... /.. J, inner dripline IV.V,/ _._". _. painting (ceiling) grindstne ~.. ~j sand) a r ecs -... ~--'O"" r;l ~,., -- SOcra cntur i... ~.I \. 09 " icy q) ' '- ' '--'- uter d[lpl i ne Hl<lh bank W N 1'-1

63 323 III ",,,.. ~' \ I, \\ I,.,..,. : # tfij,. 0. I t,...,'.. ' 0t:-. \~~'....~ :~,..,, :., I :.. '. ~,:.... t.,t' :. '., :. I. I II ) v Figure 6.3. Jiyer Cave paintings. Frm riginal sketches by R. Brwn Nt t scale. Rman numerals indicate psitin f paintings in Figure 6.2.

64 JIYER CAVE K 14west K13 west K13east K14east!.AYDI 1 -~,~ u.yu J ~.& m ~ Chercal'"'clch c U... ph (In.ltul C 14 Maple (c.-inedl Figure 6.4. Jiyer Cave: western and eastern sectins f K14 and K13S. W N.j:O

65 J/YER CAVE 611 Hst 5UII-2244 ~ ~ 612ust LAVD ) GW~ LAVD 11 G12SOJth "U-~ll'... a... -l1174 $1) U.VEII C 111 Figure 6.5. Jiyer Cave: eastern and suthern sectins f G12 and GllS. Fr key ~ee Figure 6.4. W N U1

66 JIYER (AVE H19west H1Swest H lsnrth j, ~~ j,. lua-llu ~ ~ ~~ ~_ ~... SUA- l2cl p@~ ~~ ~ 1m Figure 6.6. Jiyer Cave: western and nrtnern sectins f HIS and HI9N. Fr key see Figure 6.4. W N 0"1

67 Btt \.. ~73 Age (KY BPI I> Btta SUA E S~.J::. 0.. '" 100 JIYER CAVE G12 +8,ta _13174 \, SUA- 2? Figure Jiyer Ca ve: radicarbn Gge s against depth. W N '-J

68 ~ SO bo 70q m ~=;;;; JC G12 JC G1l CHARCOAL CHARCOAL JC K14 CHARCOAL JC HI8 CHARCOAL JC HI9 CHARCOAL Fi gure 6.8. Jiyer Cave: vertlcal dlstrlbutl n f cha rcal by we i gh t. Spits numbered as in Tables ( N.B. GIl and Hl9 are hal f squares.)

69 g m JC G12 BONE JC Gil BONE JC K14 BONE JC K13 BO~jE JC H18 BO~~E..Ie HiS BOHE Figure 6.9. Jiyer Ca ve: verti cal d istributi n f b ne by weight. Spits numbe r ed a s in Tables (N.B. GIl, K1 3 a nd H19 a r e ha l f squar es. )

70 % 20 G1'2+G11S (Q) cm / / n bn e 1 n these s pi t s / / I:<:<:>:: j Un bu rnt bne ~::: : ::::::::~l 8urnt bn ~ ( b ) H18+H19N 20 (C) 20 K14+K13S Figure Jiyer Ca ve: prprti ns f unburnt/ burnt/ calcined bne by depth f r each f t:-le three excavated areas.

71 5 10, 5 20gm 331 VI.E. Vl JC G12 SHELL JC Gll SHELL JC Kl4 SHELL JC Kl3 SHELL JC HI8 SHELL JC HIS SHELL Figure Jiyer Cave: vertlcal distributin f shell by weight. Spits numbe red as i n Tables (N.B. GIl, K13 and H19 are half squares. )

72 gm JC G12 EGGS HELL JC Gll EGGSHELL JC K14 EGGSHELL JC K13 EGGSHELL JC H18 EGGSHELL JC H18 EGGSHELL Figure Jiyer Cave: vertical distributin f eggshell by weight. Splts numbered as in Tables (N.B. GIl, K13 and H19 are half squares. )

73 333 H. f artefacts s 100 E O JC 012 QTZ OT 15MM JC K14 QTZ OT 15MM JC H18 QTZ OT 15MM Figure Jiyer Cave: vertical distributin f quartz a rte f acts lnge r t han 15 mm (numbers f artefac t s). Spits numbered as i n Tables 6.12, and

74 gm 0.. V1 JC 012 CHARCOAL / 100'/R N. f ar tefacts VI JC G12 QTZ GT 15MM Figure J iyer Cave: depsi ti n r a tes f ::n charcal and quartz artefacts lnger t~an 15 mm. Spits numbered as in Table

75 r... ~. 30 JClG12 quartz - spits 4 &. 5 bl ck frlctl:rrd f" 19afnt flak, \] la,lat. bicir: fr'9&,nt 335 ~ ~ c ~ u b '" """0\ co \7000 \700 \7_0 \7\7 - (JO:J\ \7 0?\::8 \7 \7 \7~ - \7 \ , SO J Length I br dth Figure ~. 15. Jiyer Cave : reductin ch art fer quartz artefacts "-am square G12 spi ts 4 & 5. Nte that mst fgll :n the area f f:ne duty tls (cf. Figure 4.1). Lammel ate~ 42% f ttal numbe r JClG12 quartz - sri ts ~ ~ c ~ u.t= 10 ' b l.,k r~ Ie tvr.d r"19 ",t... \7 la tllt. b 10' k r"'ii tnt ~ _... \ \7~ - 0 \7 \7_ -... Q ---v \ OV\7V u:;w : SO j L<ngth I bnadth Figure 5. J 5. Jiyer Ca ve: reductin chart f r quart: cr ~ '=: J:: t : ~. r.:~ a "' 7 1 spits J Lammelates 58% f : tc~ rl! m:j~ "".

76 336.JC FE8E:LES 6 N ,- 5 We ight (kg) 2 0 ~ Used Unuseri Figure Jiyer Cave: weight range fr used and unused pe bbl es fr m excav~ted depsits.

77 337 Depth (em) a pprx. G11s G12 K13s K14 H18 H19n 0-5 (j C ~ ~ C3 C V/// ~ ~ //// ~ V/// ~ //// C!) Central battered/pecked area (anvil?) ~ Smthed area Battered end/edge Figure Jiyer Cave: distributin f utilised pebbles by depth and square. Semi-circles indicate brken pebbles.

78 338 Scm Figure Jiyer Ca~e; g r und-edge basalt flake. Frm drawing by M. Mardaga- Campbell.

79 , JClG12 0 \lci (rac lurid (riq nt nn-quar tz, flaked "- -..., 0 0 f\,~, <::] \a..,i,tr blc. frlgaent 0 Ctrt/tr, tl flak,. i th w't-wi't" r r.tuch ' ' ,0...>< " v 0= 20 0 ' , '-.. 0 '-, O\J,0 0 ' ' _ -0- "- Lb 0 ;st ~0-~9J DO <::]0... " > loa 120 / ltngth x brt ~ dth II Figure Jiyer Cave: reductin chart fr nn-quartz flaked artefacts frm square G12 (all spits). Nte that this chart is n a different scale frm thse displaying quartz artefacts, and that the latter fall mainly in the lefthand crner. Nte als H~ higher prpc., "i.in f recgnisable flakes and cres and the reduced number f lammelates cmpared with ~he quartz assemblages.

80 340 Table 6.1 Sme plant species fund near Jiyer Cave and their Abriginal uses Species Alcasia macrrrhiza Alpinia caerula Alstnia schlaris Archntphenix alexandrae Bwenia spectabilis Calamus australis calamus mti Castansperrnum australe Cryptcarya murrayi Davidsnia pruriens Dendrcnide mrides Elaeagnus latiflius Elaecarpus grandis Eugenia crrniflra Eugenia kuranda Faradaya splendida Ficus variegata Ficus virgata Flagellaria indica Lepidzamia h~ei Lmandra lngi lia vel aff. Musa acuminata ssa banksii Piper nvaehllan ia~ vel aff. Prunus turnerana Raphidphra australasica Uses* fd (medicine) fd (technlgy) medicine fd, technlgy fd fd, technlgy fd fd technlgy fd narctic? (medicine) fd fd fd fd (firewd) fish pisn fd, technlgy (medicine) fd (med icine) technlgy (fd, medicine) fd medicine, technlgy (fd) fd (med icine) med ic ine (fd) fd medicine Frm a list f 102 species recrded in 1979 by A.Irvine (pers.cmm.). * Uses as given in Tables 3.5 and 3.6 (additinal uses in parentheses frm A. Irvine)

81 341 Table 6.2 Radicarbn ages fr Jiyer Cave Sample N. Years BP Square/spit Depth(cm) Material Beta-2471* K14/ charcal Beta " 60 K14/ charcal Beta " 60 K14/ charcal Beta G12/ charcal SUA " 80 G12/ charcal Beta " 90 G1 2/ charcal Beta " 140 G12/ charcal SUA " 100 G12/ charcal SUA Gl1/ charcal Beta H18/ charcal SUA " 50 H18/ charcal SUA " 60 H18/ charcal * Obtained by Campbell (1982a)

82 Table 6.3 Jiyer Cave, Gl2 Quantitative data (except stne artefacts) Spit Depth Ttal Carse Flne Ochre Charcal Nutshells Bne Shell Eggshell Glass Metal (em) sediments rcks rcks (gm) (gm) (gm) (gm) (gm) (gm) (gm) (gm) (kg) (kg) (kg) / / C fi :! Ttal t w -t:> N.B. A sunding which extended 30 cm belw Spit 32 was devid f bth N rcks and cultural d~psits.

83 Table 6.4 Jiyer Cave, GIIS Quantitative data (except stne artefacts) Spit Depth Ttal Carse FLne Ochre Charcal Nutshell Bne Shell E~gshell Glass Hetal (cm) sediments rcks rcks (gm) (gm) (gm) (gm) (gm) (gm) (gm) (gm) (kg) (kg) (kg) 1 S S S S ] S S los S S S ,j S S S S S S S ,S Tcals w -t:> W

84 Table 6.5 Jiyer Cave, K14 Quantitative data (except stne artefacts) Spi.t Depth Ochre Charcal Nutshell Bne Shell Eggshell Glass Hetal (C:':l) (ga) (g!:l) (g'11) (g!:l) (g~) (gm) (ga) (gr) ) / ). I S O.S )7 ~ \I Q.l Ttal Table 6.6 Jlyer Cave, ~13S Quantitative data (except stne artefacts) Spi.t Deth Ochre Charcal Nutshell Bne Shell Eggshell Glass Hetal (c:j) (ge) (ge) (~::I) (g::l) (g:1l) (ge) (&111) (ge) / / w p..j::> Ttal

85 Table 6.7 J Lyer Cave. lil8 Quantitative data (except stne artefacts) Spit Depth (em) Ttal sediments (kg) Carse Fine Ochre Charcal Nutshell Bne rcks rcks (gm) (gm) (gm) ( I:m) (kg) (kg) Shell (gm) Eggshell (W~) Glass (gm) Metal (gm) (~ ltl II h I ' J ; /, J , T,'L.ll Cd -10> 11l

86 Table 6.8 Jiyer Cave, R19N Quantitative data (except stne artefacts) Spit Depc~ Tcal Carse Fine Ochre Charcal Nutshell (c:n) sediments rcks rcks (gm) (gm) (gm) (kg) (kg) (kg) Bne Shell ( gm) (gm) Eggshell (gm) Glass (gm) Hecal (gm) /, I. 6/, Ttal Cd.f:> m

87 347 Table 6.9 Identificatin f plant remains frm Jiyer Cave Species Part Square/spit Beilschrniedia bancrftii nutshell G12/2 Gl1/2 H18/3 H19/2 (yellw walnut) G11/4 H18/4 H19/4 H19/S Elaeeaq~us banerftii nutshell H18/11 HH/2 (Jhns tne R. almnd) Elaeeareus grandis seed H18/2 (blue quandng) Endiandra ealmerstnii nutshell G12/5 Gll/1 H19/2 (black walnut) G1 1/4 Endiandra eubens nutshell ell/ I K14/1 (hairy walnut) Gl 1/4 G1l /5 Endiandra sp 7 nutshell H18/2 H18/3 H13/12

88 348 Table 6.10 Distributin f excavated material between squares (gm) G12/G11S K14/K13S H18/H19N Bne Shell Eggshell Charcal Nutshell Glass Metal N.B. Figures fr charcal dnd nutshell are nt strictly cmparable between squares ~ecause f differing depchs f excavccins (see text).

89 349 Table 6.11 faunal llst. J17~r Cave ~xcavatln. Sm.",l t mt\mml\ 1 n.h Tun 1. Snakt- Lltard Frg <.;1 II! GI 1!2 GI Ii 3 GI1/4 G I I! 5 Gil! 6 Gil! 7 GII/9 Gll(! 5 C.'pc Yrk R.H ~llte-talled Rat Green Rlngtall P um HUBky Rat-kangar Wallaby' IJallaby'.... ~ + ~ Bld "',,-0,,10 "'gamld AgArn!d Ag"rld.. GI2l I GI2!2+J G12/4+5 GIV6 C 12/7 GI2/S GI2/9 CI2! 10 CI2/11 CIVl2 IIIS/I IIIS/2 1118/3 III 8/4 1118/ /7 1I19/1 1119f2 1119/3 1119/4 1119/5 1119/6 1119/7 K 1 3f I KI)/2 KJ)/)t4 KI3!S'6 KI)f] KI4/1 KJI.I2+) K14/4 K 14! 5 K14/6 Green Rlngtal1 Pssum Rat Green Rlnp,t:lll Pe8urt Wllite-talled Rat Green Rlnp'ca!l P.sun Musky Rat-kan",ar Grecn Rll,gtali P05!!unt Green Rtl1etall POS'Urtl Green Rlp,tRll P08Sura Husky Rat-kangar + Green Rlnp,tall Pssun Green RlflRtnll P~s!tlm Grecl1 RlllP,tAlL Pssum Band lct.. Green R!net.ll Pssun Husky Rat-kangar t.... Green Rlnp,tall Pssum Rat Platypus R.H Green Rl"!1,t.dl Ps."" large Rat (;reen Rlngt.! I PO,"Utll Green ~!n",ta!l P u~ Fru!t B". IJallaby' IJallahy'.. Wa i) ;,hv" IJallsby'.. IJallAby' IJallaby' IJa llaby' Dg IJ"llaby' IJalt.,by IJallahv' IJa II aby' IJallaby' \//1 Ilby' ~ ~ ~ < Bld Bld.... Bld Bld.... Bld Bld Bld 80ld Bcld Bld AgAmld Agamld \gnmld AgsIlIld Ag~mld As mld Agendd Aga",ld Agamld Agamld AgArtld AR""fd Ag"",!d AgamiC Agilml~ Agamlti B",,~s!,J~"tifl~d by K. Aplln (Schl f Zl~y. UriS',,). Se. t.xt ( ctln 6.4.5) fr scientific na~e. f ~.",,,,al. SmAll WAllaby. prbably Thylea1e r P.tr~ale. f. BOlle m.1teriai nt ljenclrr~b[e"-b(:vnd(fle-br:1d taj:nmic,:,~cp~')rv, \Jtt~ th~ ~xc~pt In f f Ish bnes,.. t f wh Ich were Ident I fled ". Black Br m : pr'jbably liephaestu. fullglnsu).

90 Table 6.12 Jiyer Cave: G12. quartz artefacts Spie / () J 1 32 < 15mm n ~ : IS-20mm n we , ) ), mm n we 5 1) ) mm n "It > 40mm n "It: _ > 15mm t:'i_~ ~ l ) Tcal n we ~~-._- ) ) ') 5.8 ll I.S l Tutal l l,) Ul

91 Table 6.13 J iyer Cave: GIl. quartz at tefacts Spit i. 1 S :' 23 2!~ < 15mm gm J mm!1 ~~ , mm. gm ~ mlll ~()---~ > 40mm n. t?~ > 15mm n _._..._&~ I, L, J. 1 L Ttal gm i,.8 2 3S n 14.l, n n.2 Tc.lts G-l (J1

92 Table 6.14 Jiyer Cave: B18. quartz artefacts Spit Ii < 15mm gm 'i mm.E.~ ~~ L mm ~-----g~ \ mm n g~ > 40mm n gm > 15mm Ttal n gm l T')(JI / W 0'1 [,-)

93 Table 6.15 liyer Cave: H19, quartz artefacts Spit < 15mm 15-20mm 20-30mm 30-40mm > g!ll n gm ~.-- n 8m n gm n I , I ) ) J I Ttals , mm > I S,um n _._ m Teal gm ) Lv (Jl W

94 Table 6.16 Jiyer Cave: K14. quartz artefacts Spit 1 2/ J <. 15mm n ~~ g~ 9S ( /, 40 11, S S-20mm n I I, I 2.3 L J.3 ( mm n ~m mm n gm ~ > 40mm n gm > 15mm n , S ILl. 7 Ttal n , T cll s i , 3 7 S 1 21, I, vj 01 ~'"

95 355 Table 6.17 Jiyer Cave: G12 Depsitin rates fr charcal and quartz artefacts SDit Years Charcal I)uar::z gt 15 mm gm/100yrs g;n!100vr #/100yr 2/ / i ~ Calculated frm data in Tables 6.3 and 6.12, using the age-depth curve in Figure 6.7.

96 Table 6.18 Jiyer Cave: grindstnes Square Spit Depth (cm) Dl 3 E9 surf ell surf ell surf ell sllrf ell 7 34 e12 2 S 11 7 surf K 1 L+ L, 17 K 1/, 1 ] 62 K15 <;ur f 1'17 $111.- f 1'117 s\lrf t l1 t) s\lr[ t l1 9 r; U 1- f SU1- f Cat. Plan* Raw LxBxT Wt Descripein N. Mat. (cm) (kg) e m 33x22:<3 pecked, cncave d m 25x20x6 pecked bi m 37x25x7 pecked, cncave bii m 40x2Sxl0 pecked, cncave biti m 3Sx25x9 1 3 m 35x32x13 20 pecked, smthed, flat 100S c m 39x31xS 16 pecked, cncave f m 47x37xS pecked 646 h ill 35x27x7 10 pecked, flat S 1 1 b Sx7xS O.S red chre in natural hllw i m pecked, cncave, chre+charcal a lj 24x23x17 natural hllw,?smthed g m 43x30x9 pecked, cncave j I1l pecked, flat k m pecked, flat ill Illl~ I dll]() rp hie b b<ls,llr. * lcatin f surface grindstnes marked in Figure 6.2 N.B. Lcatins f surface grindstnes i, j and k recrded, but n measurements taken; few f the surface finds weighed. w Ul 0'\

97 357 Table 6.19 Jiyer Cave: whle pebbles, utilised and unmdified Square Spit Cat. Raw \-It.!-1dificatin tl. mat. (gm) G rn 782 G rn 1165 pecked hllw n face G rn 835 battered n face G rn 741 battered n face and end G b 1032 G ill 914?resin/chre residue G m 881 G b 1544 G b 768 G b 600 G m 1564 G rn 378 GIl rn 771 battered n end Gl m 686 battered n ends and edge GIl m 575 Gl rn 204 K m 1062 battered n ends K b 867 K m 369 K b 1970 smthed K b 43 K rn 218 K m 634 K rn 44 K m 855 battered n end K b -262 K m 247 K m 402 battered n face, chre K b 414 K m 164 K b 904 battered n face H m 452 battered n face HIS b 1443 H b 743 striati,,5 n face H rn smthed H m 196 battered edges H ill 166 H m 427 m = b ::;e:::].::;r?"~c D2.5201::

98 Table 6.20 Jiyer Cave: brken pebbles, utilised and unmdified Square Spit Cat. Raw Wt. Hdificat in N. mat. (grn) G m 662 smthed G m 18 G m 162 G m G m 81 G m 104 G m 63 G /22 b 482 battered end? G m 34 G m 83 grve 2x1 ern n face G /31 m 286 G /45 m 632 G m 419 G m 32 G r:j 31 G m 453 G b 16 Ki m 20 K m 105 smthed? K m 22 K m 53 K b 9 smthed? K b 55 K m 93 K m 236 resin? K m 128 K m 45 K m 266 K m 862 H m 52 H1S m 109 H1S m 32 H b 2-') / ~ H m 13 H m 257 smthed H m 42 H b 15 H n 92 s:nthed H b 6 -, H m I H rn 133,!.. H r.1 7 r), " Hl m.::.')~ m = n'..,t_ ;) :, '. _., '.,L '-!. ~:}'iic

99 Table 6.21 Jiyer Cave: grund and plished artefacts Sq'.Jare Spit Cat. Raw Wt. Cmment N. Mat. gm G 11 Gll KlL. K14 K 1 Lf G b 8.9 flake with bifacially grund edge m 6.0 flaked piece with smth grund area* b 10.3 flaked piece with smth grund area* 118 b 1.5 flaked piece with smth grund area* b natural piece with plished face and edges m flaked piece with smth grund surface* * these mil:' be fragments frm grund -edge Cixes r frm pebbles with smthing use-wear. b = basalt, m = metamrphic laj U) c

100 Table 6.22 Jiyer Cave: nn-quartz flaked artefacts, retuched r used Square Spit Cat. Raw L B T Wt. Descriptin N. Mat. em em em gm H b flake, prximal fragment. lateral retuch b *pebble flake. unifaeial retuch GIl b natural slab. bifaeially flaked edge GIl b 1 i.l natural slab. bifaeially flaked edge G m crtical flake. lateral retuch G b *piece f clumnar basalt. bifacially flaked edge G OL, 7 b flake, retuch G b flaked piece. retuch G b ( flake. retuch G ) b flat pebble, weathered, bifacially flaked edge K 1 I, 58 b *flake, unifacial retuch K 1 i b *flaked piece. unifacial retuch K 1 I m flake. distal retuch K b flaked piece. retuch b bas,!l t, m metamrphic * illustrated in Plates 6.20 t t,j (J) 0

101 361 Table 6.23 Jiyer Cave: nn-quartz flaked artefacts, nt retuched r used

102 Plate Jiyer Cave: squares GI2.GIl n left. squares H18.H19 n r ight. Damp area in centre is prduced by the in ner dri pline.. ; ': I :',: ~. ' Plate (,. 2. J i ye r C;:,c : ', QlJcCe G1J wi:h g r :nd;tnes [f r nt t rear b i. t::, [,ii : j a~d ~tt::~ : a~ ~ ~~nes.

103 Plate 6.3. Jiyer Cave: painting f anthrp mrphic figure (IV ln Fi gure 6.3). Apprx. 68 x 33 cm. Plate 6.4. Jiyer Cave : pa inting (I II in Figure 6. 3). Ap prx. 37 x 28 em. Nte additinal mtifs at t p f ph t, nt apparent n visual inspectin.

104 Plate Jiy e r Cave : painting (I in rig~re 6. j). Apprx. 95 x 27 c~. Pl ate 5. 5 (bel w). Jiyer Cave : pecked grindstne with surface depsit f red chre and charcal, fund inverted n su r face f s i te. Scale marked in 5 em intervals.

105 Plate E. 7. Jiye r Cave: > uth wa l l f s quare Gi2. Nte charc al lense s ~ step f GIl in fregr Gund. Plate Jiyer Ca ve: nrth and eas t walls f squa res H18+H19.

106 em. u. Ql c te Jiyer Cave : bne pint frm square K14 spi t 4. Plate J iyer Cav e : " hell ring frm square Gil spit 2. P ~,i~ iy a s tage in fishhk rranufactuce.

107 -' j,..., 'C': _.. ~.~v:,;fj~ JC/H18/3 Plate Jiyer Cave : shell scrape r frm s quare HIS sp it 3. p 1 2: ~ ~ '-. I 2. J i y er e" v e : : e c \.- e 0 9 r i r d s t (; n e fr If, S qua r t G I 2 :, pit 2.

108 ---' _. Pl t e Jiyer Cav e; a naturally cncave plece f basalt cntaining a red chr e depsit, frm square K14 spit 13. Pl at e Jiyer Cavt: pr bable gri nds t ne / anvil with pe cking and s m t hing n flat surfac e, fr m square GIl spit 7. Sca le in 5 em di visins. (nt clle c t ed, left at s ice in ba ckfill )

109 ' t Plate Jiyer Cave : brken pebble with pecked area, pssibly frm use as an anvil, frm square H18 spit 2. ' fj I '" t ~ F;. I ~,..; : y f: r '~ " v t : c e rj ~ 1 ~ :j r t E: fee t w: t h s r:; c. 0 t r, e d "r ~ a : c e n t r ef r s r, t J J c~s icly f r " gr:rding u~t, fr ~ ~ SQua r e Gil ~u rfa c e.

110 S (JC/H19/4).., ",,-_,-_-1 -,METR IC 1 2' Plate Jiyer Cave: pebble with battered end and edges, frm square H19 spit ~----~--~-.--~~~. I , J S521/1 0 3~ IJC / G:217 Plate Jiyer Ca ve: pebble with pecked r battered areas pssibi y fr m use as a hammerstne, frm square G12 sp it 7.

111 S52 117J3 (JC/ K14/S ) Plate Jiyer Cave: a natural plece f basalt with plished face s and a facetted edge, fr m square K14 spit 5. ~. '\ -,, ' ;., :,~ ';.... J.;, ' I,j- Pl~tt 6.?~. Ji yer Ca ve : a f l a ~ e d piec e f ba ~ alt f r m ~ quar t K14 spit 5. The ~ d g e is pre d ~in antly unifac ial.

112 Plate Jiyer Cave: steeply retuched basalt flake r flaked piece wit h crushing (at l~ft) pssibl y frm us e, fr m square K14 spit I Plate t.tt. J i yer Cave: un i fa ciall y rttuched pebble flake frm square HI9 spit I.

113 ---, J I _ ~ Plate Jiyer Ca ve: a piec e f clumnar basalt with bifac ia l flaking at ne en d. frm square G12 spit 12. I --.. ~.~ E T~ I( 1., I -.. IR. Plate Jiy~r Cave: piec es f ch re with gr und face s. fr m square H1 9,pi t 5 (left, red ) and square G12 spit 28 (r:ght. yell lo ).

114 em. I JI. Plate J iy er Cave: fishhk made frm a bent nail, fr m square K13 spit 3.

115 3 ' c:; /..J \. / 4 5", / MR1 I /,/ \ ~n s~ n p -l l d t d \t ~ 1 1 \ \ I Tru li ne ( cj l"l t tra in ). Figure 7.1. Mu1grave River Site 1 (MR1) plan f site. HRI sund.-q \ - --\ \ ( I ~... \.... \ \. \, t S t Figure MRl: eastern sectl n f s und : ng ( Xl )

116 376 MR 2 --\ +-!I RI Figure Mu lgrave Rl'Jer 2 (MR2 ) : plan f site.

117 377 Fig ure 7.4. MR2: nrthern and eastern sectins f sunding F9. Rt

118 20 '0 6 0 ~ c. 0" 10 <2b'-? 1 :'I 1b ~ 2 O~~ E13 eas t SITE MR 2 - sectins c? 0 2 R t 'Zl ~~ --~ E11 east t Rc k A (14 sum ple~ n "lul ~ ( 14, l" ple k rn blnpdl II. <..:) - (";] ( ) " C.--::..~ (j~ 2 c;.l , -- --a r:--r.._ 1a '2J U \...J \.) ".- (S, 1b ~ 0. ~ w.,..,, " ~ ~ ~: ~,,\ ~~~ '!$ &w. - - ~~.t;s ~.~~~.r:~~ ~ ~~ 3 ~~~ ~ (', l /,:\''\.\.'',,-.~\ _ ' ' '''\1 --..y _. [1] n rth H14 suth (reversed) Fiqu re 7 _5 _ MR2: east ern a nd suthern sectj n s f mai n excavati n s (Ell, E13, )_ W '-J c

119 379 Ag t I KY BP ) SUA - Z2al 20 8' t a-9t3 7 + SUA- 2Z87 E ~.c a. < j 80 J M R2 SUA-72BJ + SUA - 22 B4 + Figure 7.6. MR2: r adicarbn ages against depth.

120 gm 10 ~1R2 F9 SHELL MR2 Ell SHELL MR2 E13 SHELL MR2 H14 SHELL. figure MR2: vertical distributi n f s hell by ',.;elgnt.

121 gm ~--~--~---+--~ 0.. Vl 10 t1f: 2 F9 CHARCOAL t'ir2 F9 HUTSH ELL MR2 Ell CHARCOAL MR2 E 11 ~lutshell MR2 E13 CHARCOAL MR2 E13 NUTSHELL ~1 R 2 H 1 4 C H ARC 0 A L MR2 H14 NU TSH EL L figure 7.8. MR2 : vertlcal d istr lbutl n f charcal and nutshells by weight.

122 ,~. f artefact s VI +- a. VI 1'1 R 2 Ell T Z ij T 1 5 i'h1 13 t'1 R 2 E 1 3 T Z G T '1 t'1 F~ 2 Hi 4 T Z G T 1 5 I'H1 Figure 7.9. ~R.2: vertical d, s :ri. ~Li u en ::) f qc:.artz artetacts by n~mbers.

123 MR2 / E13 quartz - spits c.>< u blck fractur.d 'rlg.tnt fl... f:j l... lt. blc. 'rlg.fnt / ~ OJ 00 0 ' '- ' rr 0 m ;:::: _ IOQO 0 V'V_ -Q... f:j f:j9 '-... ~ _-0 f:j v f:j / Length x brudth '-... '-. SO Figure MR2: reductin chart fr qua,tz artefacts fr m square E13 sp i ts 6 & 7. La mmelates 28'1; ' t tal nu:::ber. 30 r1r2! En quartz -spits fl.k... f:j 0 blck frlcturld rra~.. ftt 1... I.t. blck rr.~.. ftt 20 ' c... u.c - 10 '-. 0"""""... 0 :::J Oil- - QQ... - V ' ) > 50 j Length I br dth II Figu r e MR2 : r eductin chart fr quartz artefac t s F~ m square ~13 spits Lamm elates 22% f ttal number.

124 384 M R2 A, 1 [) l~e~ A -- Nutcrar.M i nq.1nv i I pat n t ~ 6 20, " Steep bank l:::. Anv i I? Ri ver pebble. unused L ar ge r! at stne /" MRS m ~ MR I Figure MR2 : plan f site shwing lcatin f surface implements and pssible artefacts.

125 385 Table 7.1 Sme plant species nted near the Mulgrav~ River archaelgical sites and their Abriginal uses Species Calamus sp. Elaecarpus bancrftii Elaecarpus grandis Entada phaselides Faradaya splendida Lepidzamia hpei Licuala ramsayii Mangifera indica Rubus mluccanus Syzygium kuranda Uses* fd, technlgy fd fd fd, fish pisn fish pisn fd fd fd fd fd * Uses as given in Tables 3.5 and 3.6. Nte that M. indic (mang) is an intrduced plant. R. mluccanus is nt listed in Table 3.5, but all nativ~ raspberries are edible and were prbably utilised. N.B. This is by n means a cmprehensive list fr the lcality, even f species utilised by Abrigines.

126 386 Table 7.2 Radicarbn ages fr Hulgrave River sites Sample N. Years BP Square/spit Depth(crn) Material HRI SUA Xl/ charcal SUA-2286 Mdern XI/ charcal MR2 Beta F9/ charcal SUA E13/3 12 charcal SUA H14/8 36 charcal SUA " 70 H14/ II charcal SUA " 100 H14/ charcal

127 387 Table 7.3 Plant remains frm Mulgrave River excavatin sites Species identified at MRl : Aleurites mluccana Elaecarpus bancrftii Endiandra palmerstnii? Species identified at MR2: Beilschmiedia bancrftii Elaecarpus bancrftii Endiandra palmerstnii? Endiandra pubens Omphalea gueenslandiae (lwest ccurrence) F9/6? Ell/11 F9/9 Ell /10 F9 / 8? Ell / 13? F9/ 9? Ell /8 Ell /2 Cryptcarya glbella ) Macadamia whelanii ) surface layer nly Syzygium kuranda ) N.B. All these remains were nutshell fragments, except fr S. kuranda which is a thin-skinned fruit. Remains f the last (and pssibly the ther surface nly finds, perhaps als O. gueenslandiae) are prbably pst-ccupatin additins t the depsits, since mst specimens were uncharred and unlikely t be preserved fr mre than a few years at mst.

128 388 Table 7.4 MR2: F9, quantitative data Spit Shell Charcal Nutshell Quartz > 15 mm gm gm gm n gm I I 3.6 Ttal

129 Table 7.5 HR2: Ell. quantitative ddta Spit Ttal Carse Shell sedlment Rcks gm kg kg Charcal Nutshell 1uarcz > 15 mm 8m gill ;)0 grn Jchre gm Glass ~rn ) ) Ttal w <Xl \D

130 Table 7.6 HR1: E13. quantitative data Spit Ttal Carse Shell sediment rcks gm kg kg Charcal Nutshell Quartz > 15 mm gm gm n gm Ochre gm Glass gm Metal gm ) Ttal W lo

131 Table 7.7 MR1: H14, quantitative data Spit: Ttal Carse Shell sediment rcks gm kg kg Charcal Nutshell Quartz gm gm n > 15 mill gm Ochre gm Glass gm I t Ttal t, W ill

132 392 Table 1.8 MR2: s1~e f quart~ artefacts Spit < 15 mm n. gm mm n. gm mm n. grn > 40 mm n. gm Square Ell I () I " Square El ' I r I Square H ; ::

133 393 Table 7.9 MR2 excavatins: Stne artefacts and prbable manuprts, nn-quartz Square /spit F9/4 F9/6 F9!7 F9!7 F9!7 F9/9 El1/1 El1/4 Ell! 5 Ell/8 E13/3 E13/3 E13/4 E13/5 H14/2 H14/2 H14/7 Depth Inv. Descriptin Raw Weight (crn) N. material (gm) " flaked piece 251 brken pebble, weathered 252 *smthed pebble 253 brken pebble, weathered 254 large pebble 255 weathered flake 256 pebble 257 *plisher with grund faces 258 large flat rck 259 pumice 260 brken large pebble 261 large flat pebble 262 *srthed pebble, brken 263 pebble 264 pebble 265 large flat slab 266 *large pebble with pecked area m 22 g 251 g 337 m 150 g m 123 g g p g g g g g m g * - used artefact g - granite, m - metamrphic rcks, p - pumice Table 7. t MR2: surface implements and pssible artefacts N.* Descriptin 1 granite cbble, 3 nutcracking hllws, ne n each face 2 small pebble, unmdified 3 flat slatey rck, pssible grindstne 4 granite cbble, unmdified 5 granite cbble, 2 nutcracking hles (face 1) + 1 (face 2) 6 large rck, flat surface, pssible grindstne 7 large granite rck, 5 nutcracking hllws 8 large granite rck, 7 nutcracking hllws 9 large rck, flat surface, pssible grindstne 10 granite slab, 4 nutcracking hllws 11 cncave slab, psslble grindstne 12 granite cbble, unmdified 13 granite slab, cncave surface, pssible grindstne 14 flat smth stne, pssible grindstne 16 cncave ~lab, pssible grindstne 17 large flat slab (granite?), pssible grindstne 18 large flat slab, minr surface depressins, 7anvil 20 large cncave slab, 1 shallw depressin,?anvil L x B (cm) 13 x 11 9 x 9 18 x x 7 23 x IS 43 x x x x x x x x x x x x x 24 * Number indicates psitin in Figure 7.9.

134 Plate Mulgrave Riv er 2: lking nrth frm creek. Track n left leads t si te, which is l eve l with the upper part f the tripd. PI ate Ku lgrave Ri ver 1: facing nrtheast fr m di s turb ed pa rt f si te.

135 Plate 7.3. Mulgrave River 2: nte nu merus yung saplings and surface litter. Camera faces suth twards creek, square E13 in centre. MR2 SURFACE I Plate 7.4. Mulgrave River 2: p ssible shell artefact, ma y hav e be~n used fr slicing plant f ds (see text).

136 plate 7.5. Mulgrave River 2: square H14 spit 12. Nte gradual transiti n between layers. Plate 7.6. Mulgrave River 2: square Ell spit 4, shwing rts In Layer 1.

137 Plate 7.7. Mulgrave River 2: quartz crystal frm square H14 spit 6. S524/257 (MR2/Ell/4).~f- ~1IIlI!!'!~" ;METRIC 1 2 I,:,: :,, I,. I ' Plate Mulgrave River 2: 'pl isher' with gr un d face s and edges, fr m squa re Ell spi t 4.

138 Plate 7.9. Mulgrave River 2: nutcracking anvil n surface f site (N.8 in Figure 7.12 and Table 7.10). Apprx. 25 c~ f scale shwing. Plate Mulgrave Rive r 2: cncave s lab n surface f si te (N.1 I in Figure 7.12 and Table 7.10), p ssi bly used as a gr in ds t ne. Appr x. 40 em f scale shwin g.

139 399 88M1, \ ~ \ +- SO t canal. I M) M!O 0 ' 'hell y black,i I blac' sandy si I, / / I I. " ~28 /0 I I. \ I I, shelly 1 I sil,i I I / I I I I I I., \ Figure 8.1. Bramstn Beach Midden 1 (BBM1) plan f site. 0 Sm 0 I, 1m j ~) ~lo ~28 88M1 bah f depsi t Figure 8.2. BBM1: site prfile (vertlcal scale exaggerated).

140 88M1 tv17 nrth M10 nrth M28 nrth ~., ,, y-'~ SUA-2S00, SUA-2S01, ~~ '" SUA SUA ,,,~ 4 SUA-nt,S' ' 1m t. Blac~ sandy sil with auch sh.ll 2. Black sandy sil with little r n shell 3. Greyish sil with little shell Brwn sandy sil with n sh.ll r cultural.at.rial R~t (the upper n ay be a buried branch) C 14 sample (:abined fr. whle spit) F'i lj"n~ n. 3. uu~ll: nrthern sectins f H7, MIO and M28..p,.

141 BBM1 all quartz blck (ractur,d (raq.. nt 'Q t. blck (rlpnt... '" c ".x v 10.~ ;:: j length x breadth a Figure 8.4. BBMI: reductin chart fr quartz artefac.ts (all tl,se 10 Table 8.4). Lammelates 54% f ttal number.

142 402 Rainfrest / Clearing N 1 I I I : J, I I., I~"I ArteFact '-: /' scatter /.- I :1 I I : I I I I I I I I I A : I 0 I I I I I I I I I I I, I / I I,~ / ' DC ~ T creek 10m Figure 8.5. SF1: plan f site. A C [- L. 1 u I 1m 1 ~ Brwn la~y sil 2. Reddish clayey sil Figure 8.6. SF1: nrthern sectins f sundings A & C.

143 403 SF2 Artefact and Cane Figure 8.7. SF2: plan f site. x y,.,-'..., e m 1. Reddish clay~y sil 2. Rubble and clay Figure 8.8. SF2: nrthern sectins f sundings X & Y.

144 404 Table 8.1 Radicarbn ages fr Bramstn Beach Sample N. Years BP Square/spit Depth(cm) SUA M28/1 0-3 SUA " 70 M28/ SUA M10/ SUA M7/ SUA ,.. 40 M7/ Midden (BBM1) Material shell shell charred nutshell (Eleacar2us bancrftii) wd charcal shell N.B. Shell samples were all pipi (Dnax sp.) All shell dates are uncrrected fr O.R.C.

145 Table 8.2 Bramstn Beach Hidden: quantitative data H28 H7 Hl0 Spi.t Sediments Rcks Shell Bne Charcal Nutshell* Quartz Pumice Ochre (kg) (gm) (kg) (gm) (gm) (gm) > 15 mm (gm) (gm) (gm) (\ Spies 1-12 nt srted - see text (gm) nt srted - see text nt srted - see text nt srted - see text * Includes drupe fragments f Pandanus Spa..p Nutshells identified as Elaecarpus bancrftil. (J1

146 1106 Table 8.3 BBM1: identificatin f shell species in M28 OT Weight '0 f % f (gm) ttal nn-pipi marine marine Bivalves Dnax sp n.a. pl~esda caxans Ana ara gransa Saccstrea sp Pecten sp Gastrpds Thais buf Oliva sp Mel sp Nerita" sp Unident ified marine shells Ttal marine shells Ttal nn-pipi mdrine shells Landsnails Xanthmeln sp unident Hied 2.4 (Cral fragments 11.7)

147 Table 8.4 BBM1: quartz artefacts Ttal quartz (gm) < 15 mm (gm) mm mm > 30 mm (n) (n) (n) (n) > 15 mm (gm) M I M Ml j::> '-.I

148 408 Table 8.5 Stager Farm sites: quartz artefacts SFl Square/spit quartz > 15 mm ( n. ) (gm) A/l A/ A/ A/4 0 A/ttal e/ r C/ C/ C/ C/5 0 C/6 0 C/ttal SF2 Square/spit zuartz > 15 mm n. ) (gm) X/ X/2 0 X/3 0 X/ X/S X/ X/ttal Yj1 0 Y/2 0 Y/ Y/ Y/5 0 Y/ttal

149 Plate 8.1. Bramstn Beach Midden 1: facing suth, square MID n right. Nte dense grund cver. Plate 8.2. Bra ms tne Beach Midden 1: f ac ing nrth twards dense vegetat i n n we s tern edge f s i te.

150 Plate 8.3. Bramstn Beach Midden 1: sutheast crner f square M28. Plate 8.4. Stager Far m 1: facing nrth, stne scatter n track near seated figure, sundings placed t right f track.

151 Plate Stager Farm 2: facing suth, sunding X ln fregrund, sunding Y beynd. Artefacts and charcal fund ln cane paddck t right

152 412 GR H- \' E c I I. _1 ~'JH OL E u -.:' 4,-, 1'1-.:.- I~ 1.-..::..-..,:, 4 5 KG Figure 9.1. Weight range f r whle grund-edge implements (axes, chisels, knives, 'splitters ' ) frm museum and private cllectins. N = KG Figure 9.2. Weight range fr utilised pebbles frm museum and private cllectins. N = c::. I 1.,- OJ.Q E ::l Z /j t'h'l 0 0 F' E 8 8 L E ::; 1..,,:. KG Figure Weight range f r unmdifi ed pebbles frm museum and private cllectins. N = 48.

153 413 a b Figure 9.4. Types f flat grund edges. (a) Flat edge perpendicular t adjining faces. (b) Flat edge frms btuse angle with adjining faces. Scm Figure 9.5. Quartz cre frm Stager Private Cllectin. Stippling represents pebble crtex. Frm riginal drawing by M. Mardaga-Campbell.

154 Table 9.1 Surface cllectins frm nrtheast Queensland Cllectin Ttal grund-edge axes grind- nut pebble yurka ther flaked nnn. (a) (b) (c) scne anvil (a) (b) grund (a) (b) artefact Australian Huseum (Rth) Queensland Huseum ) It (at JCU) It (Clliver) It (Tuttle) Anthrp Hus (U f Q) Victria Huseum Hat Cult Unit JCU (Taylr) ) Dmin PC Stager PC Hansfield PC Scrl PC Stnehuse PC Ne 11a PC Irvine PC Ttals :> +:> See text fr descriptins f categries and subcategries. PC - private cllectin

155 Table 9.2 Prvenance f artefacts In ~urface cllectins Blmfield River & Hssman district Blmfield 4 3 China Camp 1 1 Hssman 4 2 Pt. Duglas 1 Rumula 1 Ttal grund-edge axes grlnd anvil pebble y- ther flakes nn- N. s b c stne a b urka grund a b artefact ttal Athertn Tableland Athertn & district Athertn Tableland B,lrrn R. (upper) 2 2 Chwnbrumba 4 3 Danbulla 1 1 LIst Barrn Elinjaa 2 2 Lake Barrine 1 Lake Eacham 2 2 Halanda Hazlln Creek 3 3 Hi llaa Hi llaa Nigger Creek 2 2 Ravenshe 2 2 Tarzali 2 Tlga 1 Yungaburra 1.p ttal U1

156 Cairns district, Hulgrave River & Yarrsbah Table 9.2 (cnt.) Ttal grund-edge axes grind anvil pebble v- ther flakes nn- N. s b c stne a b urka grund a b artefact Barrn Falls 2 1 Cairns & district I Cairns (!luth) Cairns (west) 1 I Edmntn 3 2 Grdnvale 1 1 Green Hill 3 2 H':II':lb ledn 1 1 Kame runr,a 1 1 Kappa Creek 3 3 Ht. Sphia 1 Rlverstne 1 1 \-Iright's Creek 3 2 Y.lrr.lb.lh 1 1 ttal Babinda & lwer Russell River Babinda Bartle Frere Bellenden Ker 1 1 Bramstn Beach 3 3 Crrbree Creek Dinner Creek 2 1 Deeral 1 1 Eubenangee Hiriwinni ~ PawngiUy ; 3 1 -I:::. Russell R ry, \-Ipen Creek 2 2 ttal

157 Table 9.2 (cnt.) lnnisfail district Ttal grund-edge axes grind anvil pebble y- ther flakes 000- N. II b c ate a b urka grund a b artefact Bbah Creek Charappa Clump Pc. 5 5 Cwley Beach 3 3 Daradgee Easc Palmersc.:ln Ella Bay 1 1 Elstb Rd. 6 3 Ecr.y Bay 2 Fl y 1 ng f ish Pt. 1 1 Garradunga Gndl 1 1 francis Range Inn15fai1 & district 30) Japn Jhnscne R. 1 Liverpl Creek Harr.yvllie 2 Hcna Creek ~\urllyan Ht. C r 2 1 Hund 3 3 P,) 1mc r!l tn ) 2 Suth Jhn!ltne 3 2 Tchuken 3 1 ttal ) Tully dlstrict, Haria Creek t Hurray River Dunk Is Haad i 3 ) Hidgen 1 Hissin Beach 1 1 Hurdering Pt. 1 1 Hurray R ,. Hurray Upper 7 6 '-..J Tully & district Tully falls 2 2 Tully Flats 4 3 Tully R. 2 2 Walter Hlll Range, 1 1\ ~ n 'i

158 Table 9.2 (cnt.) Cardwell district Ttal grund-edge axes grind anvil pebble y- ther flakes nn- N. a b c stne a b urka grund a b artefact Ca rdwe Hinchlnbrk Is. 1 1 ttal Ingham district Herbert Grge 1 1 Ingham ttal Lcatin uncertain Clyde Rd. 2 1 N Q 1 d /ti E Q 1 d ne recrded 1 1 Pural1l Creek 1 ralnfrest 1 unknwn 2 ttal Cape Yrk Peninsula Cen 1 Cktl.JT1 5 4 ttal western Athertn Tableland Evelyn Tableland 2 1 c Herbertn Ht. Mlly Thrnbrugh 1 1 ttal p.

159 419 Table 9.3 Grund-edge knives frm rainfrest cllectins Cllectin Cat. n. Length Width Thickness Lcali ty mm mm mm MCU/Taylr L Innisfail MCU/Taylr L Innisfail MCU/Taylr L Eubenangee MCU/Taylr L Bartle Frere Stager Babinda Nella East Barrn Etheridge (1890) Dicksn replica (1981) (MeU - Material Culture Unit, James Ck University) Table 9.4 Grund-edge chisels frm rainfrest cllectins Cllectin Cat. n. Length Width Thickness Lcality mm mm mm MCU/Taylr L Eubenangee Aust. Mus. E Athertn Dicksn (1981) (MCU - Material Culture Unit, Ja~es Ck University)

160 420 Table 9.5 Artefact: categries fund in excavatin sites Tl-type JC MRl MR2 BBMl Grund-edge axes +(a) Grindstnes - grved +(b) pecked + smthed + Nutcracking anvil +(b) +( c) Pebbles - smthed + +(b) + battered edges + +(b) battered faces (anv1l7) + +(b) bevelled unmdified 'Oyurkas' Other grund «rtefacts + + Large flaked artefacts + + Small flaked artefacts - quartz ther All (a) (b) (c) One tiny edge-grund flake and fur pssible axe fragments. Nt in stratigraphic cntext. Surface artefacts.

161 L Plate 9.1. Grund-edge knife, grund alng lng edge facing camera. Plate 9.2. Large grund-edge axe r 'splitter'. cntinued arund entire edge (thugh and butt appears unda. aged. Nte that grinding is bl unted, nt sharp),

162 L l Plate 9.3. Grund-edge axe with central grve cntinuing right arund axe "' L Plate 9.4. Grund-edge axe with grve placed nearer t butt than t grund edge. Flaking at butt may be due t shaping f implement r ps sib ly t use as a hammer.

163 Plate 9.5. Duble~ended grund-edge axe with central grve. Nte ham mer dressing n surface. Plate 9.6. Waisted axe, very weathered and with edge-grinding n lnger visible, but prbably nce present. Pen is 15 em lng.

164 ------'---._.--._, t-.""'! j ClE 2555 Plate 9.7. Waistid and partly shuldered grund-edge axe , Plate 9.8. Grund-edge axe with pecked r battered areas (centre, lwer right pssibly frm use as an anvil e.g. in quartz flakin g.

165 Plate 9.9. Grved slate grindstne r 'grahl. Nte shrt grves at right angles t the rest n left edge. ~-. ~~~~~--~~ ~.. ~... Plate Cncave grindstne with s. thed wrking surface \reverse fa ce f nutcracking anvil shwn in Plate 9.11).

166 ~~-r:.-_._-_._-_._-.~ l _ L Plate Nutcracking anvil (rck is type f schist). Plate Pebble artefact with s.thing (alng lwer edge) and transverse striat i ns (upper centre), pssibly used with a gr :ndstne.

167 L Plate Pebble artefact with indentatins In face, pssibly used as a hammerstne and/r an anvil. L S7 Plate Pebble artefact with flattened edges fr.ing a bevel. Grinding r ther wear n the bevel edge nt apparent.

168 Plate Pebble artefact with grund sides and edge fr.ing a bevel. (Pen is 15 CI lng.) Plate Pebble artefact with tw areas f parallel striatins. (Pen is 15 CI lng.)

169 , ~_---'--~--,--~--~., "." Plate Oyurka, shwing shaped and smthed 'handle' and grund edge at the tp f the T (facing camera). -- fj L Plate Pebble half with flat grund edge (facing camera) pssibly with similar functins t an yurka.

170 Plate Waisted flakell, 'chpper';' very "eat ere... trace f grinding. (Pen is IS c. lng, dr-""=~~~ Plate Waisted flaked i apleaent, pssibly a haaaer. (Pen ca lang.)

171 431 Table 10.1 Plants with txic substances, apparently eaten raw Specles Alangium villsum Capparis canescens Davids~l~ruriens (Davidsn's plum) Elaecarpu~randis ~51ue quandng) Ficus micrcar2a v.latiflia ( f g)--- Gink2gyllum falcatum H _ _~. ~~ h!~p~~~~~flia Meldinus australis Melaiiii!~ui lfyie i Meldinus mur1 e Mrinda citri lia Nelumb nucifera (ltus) Planchnia careya (ccky apple) pdcareus elatus ( rwn pine) Part eaten fruit fruit fruit fruit fruit fruit seed fruit fruit fruit fruit seeds, rts fruit fruit Txins* 9, -3~, j3 9, -9, -30-6, 6, -9, -30?9-3~, 34-9, 30 6, 9, -30 9, -9, 79, 3D, -:;0, 34 9, -9, 79, 3D, -3~, 31, 34 6, 7 9,?9, -30 9, -9, -30-9, 3D, -3~, 31, 33, N.B. Flecker et al. (1948) say H. pinnatiflia requires cmplex treatment including leaching, but give n further details. * Key t txic substances (frm Beck 1985: Appendix 1) 6 cyangp.netic glycsides 7 glucsinlates 8 aliphatic nitr-cmpunds (nt therwise specified) 9 21 alkalids (nt therwise specified) amin acids & amines (nt alkarnines) 22 txalbumins r phyttxins 23 xalates 25 cumarin derivatives 30 sapnin glycsides & sapnins (nt therwise specified) 31 steridal glycsides triterpenid cmpunds terpenid cmpunds (nt therwise specified) 42 Txic principles nt specifically characterised r recrded negative test result 7 dubtful test result

172 432 Table 10.2 Plants with txic substances, eaten raw r cked Species Part eaten Txins* Aleurites rnluccana (candlenut) Discrea transversa (yarn) Randia fitzalani Rhdrnzrtus macrcarya finger cherry Triglchin prcera (water-ribbn) nut, raw r rasted -9, 9, 722, 730, yarn, raw r rasted 79, -9, -30 fruit. raw r rasted 79, -9, 30, 31 fruit, raw r rasted -9, 25, -30, 42 rt, rasted -6, 9, -9, * See Table 10.1 fr key t txic substances. Table 10.3 Fd plants eaten in nrtheast Queensland after alternate r~ating and punding Spec!.es Part eaten Txins* Alcasia maccrrhiza (cunjevj\ rhizmes 79, 23,42 Arpelcissus acetsa rts (native grape) Blechnurn indicum rhizme -6, -9, -30, 42 <bungwall in S.Qld.) Cayratia clematidea rts -9 Ipmea pes-caprae rhizme -9 (gatsft cnvlvulus) Vandasia retusa yam -9, 30, 31 * See Table 10.1 fr key t txic substances.

173 433 Table 10.4 Fd plant. eaten in nrtheast Queensland after washing r leaching Species Frm, habitat, distributin Part eaten Txic substances* Avicennia marina (grey mangrve) Beilschmiedia bancrftii (yellw walnut) Bwenia spectabilis Bruguiera gymnrhiza (red mangrve) Castanspermum australe (black bean, Mretn Bay chestnut) Cycas media Discrea bulbifera ('cheeky' yarn) Endiandra palmerstnii (black walnut) Endiandra pubens ~hairy warnut) Entada Khaselides (matc bx bean) Lepidzamia hpei Macadamia whelanii Pdcarpus amarus (black pine) Prunils turnerana (wild almnd) Tacca lentpetalides (Plynesian arrwrt) tree, mangrves, widespread tree, rainfrest, N.Qld. (Blmfield t Tully) shrub, wet lwlands, N.Qld. (Blmfield t Tully) tree, mangrves, widespread tree, rainfrest, Qld. NSW (Cktvw t Bellinger R.) tree. eucalypt frests, nt>thern Australia vine, rainfrest, widespread in trpics tree, rainfrest, N.Qld. (Blmfield t Tully) tree, rainfrest, N.Qld. (Blmfield t Ingham), SE.Qld. and nrthern NSW seed nut rt seedling seed seed yam nut nut wdy climber, rainfrest, seed nrthern Australia, Asia, Africa tree, rainfrest, N.Qld. (Blmfield t Tully) tree, rainfrest, N.Qld. (C.Tribulatin t Cardwell) tree, rainfrest. N.Qld. (Blmfield t Twnsville) tree, rainfrest, Cape Yrk Peninsula t Twnsville herb, eucalypt frest, widespread in trpics seed nut nut nut rt 9,-9,-30,30 8,22, ,9,-6,30, 31,33,42 8,21,42-9, ,79-9,6,30?8,21,42 6 6,-9,-30,34-6,-9,79,-30 N.B. Flecker et al. (1948) als list Hicksbeachia pinnatiflia ana-grdyllne terminalis as requirlng cmplex treatment including leaching. Surces fr habitat and distributin data: Cribb & Cribb (1974); Francis (1981); Levitt (1981); A. Irvine and B. Jackes (pers.cmms.). * See Table 10.1 fr key t txic subst.:mces.

174 Table 10.5 Summary f fd prcessing techniques in nrtheast Queensland (see als Appendix D) Species Avieenni g marina fitiillhm.i.c.di a ban e rf t l1 Bwcnia spcctabilis Brugutera gymnrhiza Castanspcrmum australe Cyeas media Discrea bulbifcra ~!l~j-;~eua ~n it ~nj [ar:!~~~lbe!2! ~~~:.IJ,~ p!~~s.'::.2.1ijes M.JCiHLllUld whe[ani i --"-.--,~, -."---~-" Pd~:r~ amarus!'it.l!lus ~~!~~l~~ani! Tae c a I C()fl ~()p~.r:..i!l9lde s Technique cked, washed in bag, squeezed dry cked, punded, leached cked decmpsed cked, punded, peeled, washed, drained in sand cked, peeled, sliced, saked cked, punded, sifted, w~9hed, drained in sand cked, sliced, leached cked, sliced, leached steeped, sliced, dried, punded, cked n ht st~e cked, saked, sliced, saked cked, sliced, leached, punded punded, rasted, saked cked, kept 4-5 days, punded, sifted, leached cked, sliced, leached cked, kept few days, punded, sifted, leached cked, mash~d, strained, washed 7-8 times, drained cked, punded, leached cked cked, punded, leached * cked hurs cked, punded, leached cked careful preparatin cked, grund, mixed with water cked, chpped, grund, sieved * cked, grund, leached punded, sifted, damped & made int cakes, cked * grund, saked, cked cked, mashed, cked punded, saked, cked saked, hammered, rasted grated, sieved, washed 1-2 times, cked * see ftnte in Appendix D. Lcal! ty CYP Tully (nt given) Dunk Is. CYP Tully Blmfield Athertn Tully Tully Innisfail (nt given) Herbert R. Blmfield Tully (nt given) Blmfield Athertn, Blmfield Jhnstne R. Athertn Jhnstne R. Blmfield. Cyp Bellenden Ker Ra. Bellenden Ker Ra. Athertn Tab. Athertn Tab. Herbert R. Blmfield R. Jhnstne R. Blmfield Cape Graftn Cape Yrk Cape Yrk Peninsula Surce N.B. CYP - Cape Yrk Peninsula Rth (1901b:9) Rth (1901b:ll) Bailey (1906:188) Banfield (1908/1982:169) Rth (1901b:l0) Rth (1901b:IO) Rth (1901b:l0) Rth (1901b:l0) Rth (1901 b: 1 0) Carrn (1849:28) Jhnstne (1904:30) jhnstne (1904:50-51) Lumhltz (1889:181) Rth (1901b:ll) Rth (1901b:l1) Jhnstne (1904:50) Rth (1901b:11-12) Rth (1901b:ll) Palmers tn (1885-6:242) Rth (1901b:12) Palmers tn (1885-6:242) Rth (190Ib:12) Hestn (1889) Hestn (1904;15) Rth (1901b:15) Dixn (1977:10) Lumhltz (1889:251) Rth (1901b:15) Palmerstn (1885-6:243) Rth (1901b:16) Rth (1901b:16) Rth (1901b;16) Rth (1901b:16).j::> w.j::>

175 435 Table 10.6 Nutritinal values fr se nxius fd plants Species prtein % fat: % carbhydrate % energy kj/l00gm Aleurites mluccana (raw) Aleurlt~s miuccda (treated) AIeUrLteS-rnluccana (raw) ~~!l~~hmledi~_b~nsrqf~~! (raw) 7.8 O.S O.S n.d. n.d * ruguler~gY!!!~Q~!!!.za (raw) CastansQermum au~trale (raw) Castanspermum auserale (treated) n.d C~as media (raw) Cycas-meJ[a (treated) n.d Oiscrea bujh~la (treated) Oiscrea bulbifera (raw) Dlscrea bulblfera (raw) Olscrea-buiblfera (treated) Discrea bulbifera (treated) n.d Elaecarpus bancrftll (edlble raw) Tacca lentpetalldes (raw) 3.3. I ? *Surces: 1. Armed Frces Fd Science Establishment. Scttsdale. Tasmania (Les Hlddlns, Twnsville, pers.cmm.) Harris (1975) Brand and Cherlkff (1985) n.d. - data nt given

176 436 Table 10.7 Availability f sme txic fd plants Species Beilschmiedia bancrftii Bwenia spectabilis Castanspennum 3ustralc Cycas media Endiandra palmerstnii Endiandra pubens Pdcarpus amarus When available mid Jan. t mid Feb. n tree, 2-3 mnths n the grund all year late Jan. t April n cast mid Feb. t June n Athertn Tab. mainly July/Aug. and Dec. t Feb als spradically all year similar t E. pubens Dec. t Feb. (Athertn Tab.) late Jan. t April

177 Table 10.8 Txic fd plante eaten in nrtheaat Queensland; apparent reginal variatin in preference Lcallty* ~ Avicennia marina Beilschmiedia bancrftii Bwenia spectabilis BruBuiera gvmnrhiza Castanspermum australe Cycas media Discrea bulbifera Endiandra palmerscnii Endiandra pubens Entada phaselides LCE-idzamia hpei M3cadamia whelanii Pdcarpus amarus Prunus turnerana I,~cc~~nt~ta 10 ides Cken, CYP (R) Blmfld Athtn CGrftn Yidin BellKer JnstnR Tully Tully HerbtR ( R) (R) (R) (D) (M) (P) (R) (Of 1) (L) use recrded fr dlstrict - - nn-use recrded * Lcality: Cktn (Cktwn): CYP (Cape Yrk Peninsula): Blmfld (Blmfield Ri\er): Athtn (Athertn): CGrftn (Cape Graftn): Yidin (Yidinjdji territry): BellKer (Bellenden Ker Range): JnstnR (Jhnstne River): HerbtR (Herbert River), ** Surces: D (Dixn 1977); DtI (Bb Dixn & Tny Irvine pers.cmm.1985); L (Lumhltz 1889); M (Mestn 1889, 1904); P (Palmerstn ): R (Rth 1901b)..j::> w -..)

178 438 Table 11.1 Sme Australian nxius fd plants als eaten in ther cuntries Aleurites mluccana Alcasia macrrrhiza Avicennia spp. B1echnum indicurn Bruguiera spp. Cvcas spp. and related genera Discrea spp. ( cheeky' yam) Entada phaselides Ipmea pes-caprae Tacca 1entpetalides Cuntry/regin Java, New Guinea l1a1aysia, Phil ippines, New Guinea Celebes, Java, Philippines 11alaysia Malaysia, Annam, Celebes, Philippines, New Guinea Guam, Indnesia, Philippines, Fiji, Ceyln, SE.Asia, Clumbia, Mexic, Japan, Hnduras, Flrida, India, E.Africa, S.Africa Malaysia, Philippines, trpical Africa, trpical Asia, S.America, Ne'.-l Guinea Andaman Is., Indnesia, India Malaysia Philippines Malaysia Surces 3ur;':~ ~e:1l:'l 1930?; :ell 1976 Burkill 1935 Mcnsalud et a PO\'lell 19~ Burkill 1935 Mnsalud et al.196~ Glsn 1971 Burkill 1935 Mnsalud et al.1966 P;;'lell 19~ Burkill 1935 Mnsalud et al.1966 Hhiting 1963 Beatn-1977 Burkill 1935 Mnsalud et al.196~ Cursey 1~ Beck 1985 POl'lell 1976 Burkill 1935 Mnsal~d et al.1966 Glsn 1971 Mnsalud et al.1966 Glsr: 19;-r--

179 439 APPENDIX A Published in: Queensland Archaelgical Research 1: (1984). T'HEOR.I S I!lG A.l\.OUT liorthy.as T QUKKli S LAJrD PUB I S TO R.Y NICJ::Y HORSFALL.~lYiO'Jr~1 S<it~CtS J~t5 Ck ~imsit1 r btll Q,Jttlls!~~ INTRODUCTION Rainfrests are distributed unevenly thrughut eastern Australia, but nly in ne prtin f the trpics between Cairns and Cardwell (Figure 1) has a distinct Abriginal "culture area" been recgnised (Petersn 1976). The Abrigines f this area have attracted a fair amunt f attentin frm varius researchers in, physical anthrplgy, linguistics and material culture. Hwever, little archaelgical research has been undertaken in the regin. Sme sites have been excavated in and near the rainfrest district (Wright 1971, Brayshaw 1977, Campbell a,1982b) but s far archaelgical depsits lder than 2,000 years have nt been recrded, and little prgress has been made twards a reginal prehistry. In this paper lut line varius theries abut the prehistry f the rainfrests and prvide a framewrk fr future archaelgical research. AN EARLY THEORY OF RAINFOREST PREHISTORY The earliest thery abut Abriginal ccupatin f the Nrth Queensland rainfrests was put frward by Tindale and Birdsell (941). In they studied the tribes f this regin, describing them as: characterized by a high incidence f relatively and abslutely smail stature, crisp curly hair, and s tendency tward yellwish-brwn skin clur (Tindale and Birdsell 1941:1). These tribes variusly r<:!ferred t as "negrits", "Tasmanids", "pygmies" r "Barrineans", were believed by Tindale and Birdsell t be clsely related t the Tasmanian Abrigines and ther small-statured grups in the extreme sutheast and suthwest f the mainland. Their cultural affinities were als seen as being with the peple f suthern Australia rather than with their nearer neighbrs. This led t the hypthesis that all these small statured grupe were descendants f the first human ppulatins t clnise Australia. They were later displaced t marginal areas by the arrival f at least ne ther grup with different racial affilistins. Accrding t Birdsell, little racial mixing ccurred in the Cairns rainfrest regin,

180 440 Appendix A (cnt. ) 165 and thus many characteristics f the riginal clnists were preserved t the present day (Birdsell 1949). This thery was based largely n the physical appearance f the rainfrest dwellers, and als n the linguistic and cultural characteristics, as they were perceived at the time. It may als have wed much t a lw pinin n the part f the researchers as t the suitability f rainfrests fr human habitatin: Dense wet frests becme refuge areas nly t be sught by thse less frtunate tribes whse physical and mental inferirities cndemn them t the least desirable parts f primitive man's envirnment (Tindale 1940:149). Subsequent research has nt cnfirmed this first thery f Nrtt> Queensland prehistry. There may veil have been mre than ne race f Hm sapiens reaching Australia (Jnes 1979). Hvever, the Cairna rainfrest peple cannt be identified as descendants f any particular grup. They d nt stand ut frm ther Queensland Abriginal ppulatins n the basis f crani. al studies (Lanarch and Macintsh 1970), nr n the baais f bld grup r ther gene frequencies (rirk 1973). Neither d the languages f the regin differ in any significant vay frm ther Australian languages (Dixn 1966,1972,1980). There d appear t have been cultural differences frm neighburing grups, thugh the early ethngraphic evidence is scanty (mainly Rth ). Hwever, many aspects f the culture, especially the distinctive material culture items nted by Rth and thers, can be seen t be at least partly the result f the trpical rainfrest envirnment, vhich supplies a smewhat different resurce base frm that f mst ther Australian envirnments. 1 Figure 1. The rainfrest "culture area" shving tribal territrie'1 and name. ( frm Tindale 1974) and Pre Eurpean distributin f rainfrest (shaded)(frm Birtles 1967). 1. Tjapukai 2. Bu luva i 3. Idindji 4. K~kandji 5. Ngatjan 6. Madjandji 7. Wanjuru 8. Djirubal 9. Msmu 10. Gulngai 11. Djiru 12. KerBI:lsi

181 441 Appendix A (cant.) 166 Nr is it pssible t agree with Tindale's lw pinin f ralnfrests and their inhabitants. A recnstructin (Harria 1978) f rainfrest sciety as it was just prir t cntact pints t a ppulatin demgraphically well adapted t its envirnment, with a high ppulatin density (estimated at 2km 2/persn), large and frequent gatherings, and a pattern f intensive resurce use. This last included heavy dependence n leaching technlgy fr remving the txic and/r bitter principles present in s many rainfrest plants. The ntin f a viable and vigrus rainfrest ppulatin is reinfrced by Dixn 0972:350), wh suggests n linguistic grunds that the Djirbal-speaking peple expanded their ppulatin and spread frm the castal rainfrests tward the Athertn Tableland, displacing the Hbabaram-speaking peple in the prcess. In summary, the Tindale-Birdsell thery f rainfrest prehistry hss been shwn by varius researchers t be inadequate. It shuld therefre be discarded. In the absence f adequate archaelgical data, can a better ne be prpsed? The last part f this paper presents a speculative framewrk which might have sme predictive value fr future archaelgical research in ~he area. Hwever, it is first necessary t discuss the tempral and spatial variatins f the rainfrests as far as they sre understd. VEGETATION HISTORY The ntin f human adaptatin t the rainfrest envirnment (Birdsell 1949, Harris 1978) is basic t this discussin. It wuld seem lgical t assume that fr a well adapted "rainfrest culture" t develp and maintain itself, rainfrests must cnstitute a majr part f its envirnment and must have dne s fr a cnsiderable perid f time. (Such a situatin can be cntrasted t thse drier r mnsnal regins in which patches f rainfrest ccur; rainfrest species in these patches are ften utilised, but in the verall pattern f explitatin, ther species cntribute the majr prtin f the diet). Since human adaptatin t the rainfrest clearly depends n having a rainfrest t adapt t, a knwledge f the prehistric envirnment f the area wuld be mst useful in recnstructing the prehistry f peples living there. Analysis f pllen in sediments frm the Athertn Tableland has enabled Kershaw ( , and in Cventry et s : ) t recnstruct the fllwing sequence. Araucarian rainfrests were dmi Dant frm the beginning f the recrd abut 120,000 years ag until 38,000 BP. Frm 38,000 t 27,000 BP, rainfrest species decreased and were largely replaced by sclerphyll species such as eucalypts and acacias. The sclerphyl1 frest reained dminant until 9,500 BP. Between that time and 6,000 BP, rainfrest species again increased, thugh the cmpsitin f the resultant rainfrest cmunity was different frm the previus ne. Finally, during the last 3,000 years, the rainfrests have again been partly replaced by sclerphyll vegetatin. These vegetatin changes are cnsidered t be related t changes in precipitatin, and Kersha , als Cventry et a : ) has prduced a mean annual rainfall curve fr the sequence (Figure 2). It shuld be nted that the data derives slely frm surces n the Athertn Tableland. N infrmatin is available fr the lwland regin r the castal ranges. Rainfrests may have cntinued t flurish in these areas and/r n thse prtins f the cntinental shelf expsed by lwer sea levels even during perids f reduced precipitatin.

182 442 Appendix A (cant.) 167 }'ft'" 8P ' $0.000 IJ.OOO ",po 11,000 "' J, '-...,..!...-' I I I I I. I I I I I I I I I I I I ~ ft, ( : ~ Figure 2. (a), Pllen diagram frm Lynch's Crater, Shwing percentage f rainfrest (shaded) t sclerphyll taxa. (b), Suggested mean annual rain-fall (mm). Dashed line represents present rainfall (frm Kershaw 1978). N.B. Dates beynd 38,000 B.P. are extraplated. frm sedimentatin rates,/ ~ :' '-_ " '. - a b c Figure 3. Pstulated extent f prehistric rainfrests. (a) 17,000-14, 000 BP (b) 8,000 BP, (e) Present (fr Kershaw 1975 ).

183 443 Appendix A (cnt.) 168 An admittedly speculative recnstructin f the vegetatin distributin in nrthern Australia and Nev Guinea by Nix and Kalma (1972) als demnstrates dramatic fluctuatins in the extent f Nrth Queensland rainfrests during the last 20,000 years (Figure 3). HOl/ever, its parameters are t brad t permit detailed inferences t be dravn. Fr instance, n clsed frests are shl/n in eastern Australia at 17,000-14,000 BP, yet majr pckets must have remained t alll/ the reclnisatin f the Athertn Tableland as demnstrated in the pllen recrd. Thus, an adequate recnstructin f the prehistric vegetatin f the entire Cairns/Cardwell district i. nt pssible at present. It is t be hped that future research will viden the data base. MORE RECENT THEORIES OF RAINFOREST PREHISTORY Bth Brayshav (1977) and Barris (1978) made use f Kershav's pllen analyses when discussing prehistric ccupatin f the Nrth Queensland rainfrests. Brayshaw suggested that, with a higher rainfall prir t 3,000 BP, the rainfrests may have been much mre extensive than they are tday (see Figure 3q). If such were the case, the fur sites she excavated wuld then have been within the rainfreat. Nne f the aites was lder than 2,000 years, which led her t cnclude that perhaps human ccupatin f the trpical rainfrests is quite recent. Harris (1978) implied a rather different sequence f events. He thught it pssible that human ppulatins were already ccupying the Athertn Tableland befre 9,500 BP at a time when the vegetatin was predminantly scle~phyll. As the rainfrests regenerated, the inhabitants adapted t the new envirnment. Interestingly, a legend recrded by Dixn (1972:29) indicates that peple were indeed living n r near the Athertn Tableland I/hen it vas "nt jungle - just pen scrub". Neither f these tw theries was designed as a predictive mdel fr archaelgical research. In rder t make a detai led hypthesis with sme predictive value, I find it necessary t make explicit tv majr assumptins. First, it was nted abve that the rainfrest dwellersf just prir t Eurpean cntact appear t have been well adjusted t their envirnment. It wuld be fair t assume that an intensive explitatin pattern f the kind suggested by Harris, supprting a fairly large ppulatin, wuld have been preceded by a pattern f less intensive explitatin by a smaller ppulatin, making infrequent use f the leaching technlgy r perhaps lacking it all tgether. A brief discussin f the antiquity f the leaching prcess is in rder here. It is nt certain hv lng such a technique has been part f the Australian tl kit. The nly archaelgical evidence t date relates t cycads, an extremely txic grup f plants requiring leaching r fermentatin t remve r destry the txins (Beatn 1977). The ldest evidence fr Abriginal explitatin f these plants cmes frm suthern West Australia at 13,200 BP (Smith 1982). At this site cycads appear t have bp.en a minr dietary cmpnent. A date f 4,300 BP fr the use f cycads in central Queensland (Beatn 1977,1982) appears t be assciated with mre intensive explitatin, t feed participants at large ceremnial gatherings. In Nrth Queensland, ther txic species besides cycads were used as staples. The use f leaching as an everyday technique as recrded fr the rainfrests may pstdate its use in a ceremnial cntext further suth, thugh cssual use f txic plants may extend back int the Pleistcene. Lack f data frm the rainfrests des nt allw us t d mre than speculate.

184 444 Appendix A (cnt.) 169 A secnd reasnable assumptin that I ~ish t make explicit is that the intensive use f txic plant prducts by means f the leaching prcess is essential if a given area f rainfrest is t supprt a large ppulatin. Rainfrests are typically l~ in animal bimass, thugh the inevitable creeks and rivers are a surce f fish, shellfish, etc. The leaching technique enables ther~ise txic nuts and rts (many f ~hich are high in prtein and fat) t be added t the diet. In shrt, I ~uld assume that high ppulatin density and dependence n the leaching technlgy ~ent hand in hand in the Nrth Queensland rainfrests. Given these assumptins, I shall hypthesise that early ccupatin f the rainfrests ~as at a l~ ppulatin level, ~ith little r n use f txic plant prducts. Such ccupat in might (r might nt) dat e frm the earliest clnisatin f Australia. I shall further hypthesise that the patterns f life in the rainfrests altered at sme later time, perhaps in respnse t sme external s~imulus, perhaps as part f the cntinuing interactin bet~een peple and their envirnment. Ppulatin density increased, resurce explitatin intensified and the leaching technique ~as either invented, intrduced, r its already kn~n applicatin increased. N rdei f events is necesbarily implied in this 1 is t. At this stage ne can speculate that envirnmental changes may have influenced the curse f events. Fr instance, sea level rise at th~ end f the Pleistcene resulted in a decrease in the lsnd area f Australia. By 5-6,000 BP the present castline ~as reached, and any rainfrest that existed n the cntinental shelf ~uld have vanished. The remaining areas f rainfrest might n~ have been required t supprt a larger ppulatin than previusly, and methds f intensive resurce explitatin such as the leaching technique ~uld certainly have enabled this. The rainfrests may have further decreased in area frm 3,000 BP fll~ing the l~ered precipitatin suggested by Kershaw (1978) (Figure 2). Alternatively, it is pssible that the shrinking f the rainfrests had very little t d with a mre intensive pattern f resurce explitatin. The change frm ne pattern t anther may have ccurred at quite a different time, perhaps ~ith the increase in extent f rainfrests frm 9,500 BP, r perhaps nly ~ithin the last millennium r s. CONCLUSION This hypthesis is bth less and mre detailed than thse f Brayshaw and Harris. It refrains frm specificity abut dating, but includes varius assumptins whse validity may be checked by archaelgical research, if the requisite data can be unearthed. The testing f archaelgical hyptheses is nt as straightfrward as in sme ther disciplines ~here experiments ca be carried ut under artificial cnditins. Archaelgical data is subject t decay and destructin, and nce gne it is nt rene~able. In the trpicsl rainfrest regin, lcal cnditins f high humidity and temperature cntribute t a rapid rate f decay f rganic remains. Als, regular flding and intensive Eurpean utilisatin f the land have cntributed t site destructin. Ideally t test the first phase f this hypthesis, archaelgical evidence f early, lw intensity ccupatin ~ill need t be fund, tgether ~ith firm palae-eclgical evidence f a rainfrest envirnment. The discvery f a suitable site will necessarily be serendipitus, especially if this phase f ccupatin really is early.

185 445 Appendix A (cnt.) 170 Finding data n the later phase f ccupatin shuld be less difficult, since it was still extant abut a hundred years ag. The leaching technique utilised stne tls such as nut-cracking stnes and mrahs fr crushing kernels t a carse flur. Many f these tls have been plughed up in areas nw cleared f rainfrest, thugh unfrtunately nne have yet been fund in a datable cntext. If relevant stratified sites can be fund, it shuld be pssible t date the first appearance f such tls, and/r demnstrate a change in patterns f site utilisatin in the past. I am aware that the freging is a very flimsy framewrk n which t cnstruct a prehistry. My aim was t explre the varius pssibilities frm an archaelgical viewpint. My current research in the regin shuld begin t fill in the gaps in this utline and expse its deficienciea. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My thanks t Jhn Campbell and Anne Blackwell fr helping me t express what I was trying t ssy. REFERENCES Beatn, J.M Dangerus Harvest: Investigatins in the Late Prehistric Occupatin f Upland Suth-East Central Queensland. Unpublished PhD thesi., Australian Natinal University. Be a t (.' n, J M I 982 Fir e and W ate r: Asp e ct. 0 f Au s t r ali a nab 0 rig ina 1 Management f Cycad.. Archaelgy in Oceania 17: Birdsell. J.B The Racial Origin f the Extinct Tasmanians. Recrds f the Queen Victria Mu'eum, Launcestn 2(3): Birtles, T.C A Survey f Land Use, Settlement and Sciety in the Athertn-Evelyn District, Nrth Queensland. Unpublished MA thesis, University f Sydney. Brayshaw, H.C Abriginal Material Culture in the Herbert/Burdekin District, Nrth Queensland. Unpublished PhD thesis, James Ck University. Campbell, J.B Settlement Patterns n Offshre Islands 1n Nrtheastern Queensland. At,18tralian Archaelgy 9: Campbell, J.B New Radicarbn Results fr Nrtb Queensland Prehistry. Australian Archaelgy 14: Campbell, J.B. 1982b Autmatic Seafd Retrieval Systems: The Evidence Frm Hinchinbrk Island and Its Implicatins. In S. Bwdler (Ed.) Castal Archaelgy In Eastern Australia,?p Department f Pr-ehistry, Research Schl f Pacific Studies, Australian Natinal Oniversity: Canberra.

186 446 Appendix A (cant.) 171 Cventry, R.J., D. Hpley, J.B. Campbell, 1. Duglas, N. Harvey, A.P. Kershaw, J. Oliver, C.V.G. Phipps and K. Pye 1980 The Quaternary f Nrtheastern Australia. In R.A. Hendersn and P.J Stephensn (Eds.) The Gelgy and Gephysics f Nrtheastern Au s t r ali a, p p G e 0 lg i cal Sc i e t y 0 f Au s t r ali a, Queensland Divisin: Brisbane. Dixn, R.M.W Mbabaram: A Dying Australian Language.Bulletin f the Schl f Oriental and African Studies. University f Lndn 29(1) : Dixn, R.M.W The Dyirbal Language f Nrth Queensland. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. Dixn, R.M.W The ~anguages f Australia. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. Harris, D.R Adaptatin t a Trpical Rainfrest Envirnment: Abriginal Subsistence in Nrtheastern Queensland. In N.G. Blurtn-Jnes anc! V. leynlds (E~ds.) Human Behayiur and Adaptatin. pp Taylr and Francia: Lndn. Jnes, R The Fifth Cntinent: Prblems Cncerning the Humlln Clnizatin f Australia. Annual Review f Anthrplgy 8: Kershaw, A.P Late Quaternary Vegetatin and Climate in Nrtheastern Australia. In R.P. Suggate and M.M. Cresswell (Eds.) Quaternary Studies, pp Ryal Sciety f New Zealand: Wellingtn. Kershaw, A.P Recrd f the Last Interglacial-Glacia~ Cycle Frm Nrtheastern Queensland. Nature 272: Kirk, R.L TI,e Humsn ::::lgy f Abrigines in Cape Yrk Australian Abriginal Studies N. 4~. Australian Institute f Abriginal Studies: Canberra. Lanarch, S.L. and N.W.G. Macintsh 1970 The Cranilgy f the Abrigines f Queensland. Oceania Mngraph N. IS. Nix, B. A. and J.D. Kalma 1972 Climate as a Dmiant Cntrl in the Bigegraphy f Nrthern Australia and New Guinea. In D. Walker (Ed.) Bridge and Barrier: The Natural and Cultural!!.ill.::. ry f Trres Strait, pp Australian Natinal Univers ity: Canberra. Petersn, N The Natural and Cultural Areas f Abriginal Australia. In N. Petersn (Ed.) Tribes and Bundaries in Australia, pp Australian Institute f Abriginal Studies: Canberra. Rth, W.E Nrth Queensland Ethnnaphy Bulletins. Ns.l- 8, Gvernment Printer: Brisbane. Ns. 9-18, Recrds f the Australian Museum 6-8.

187 447 Appendix A (cnt.) 172 Smith, M Late Pleistcene Zamia Explitatin in Suthern Western Australia. Archaelgy in Oceania 17: Tindale, N.B Results f the Harvard-Adelaide Universities Anthrplgical Expeditin : Distributin f Australian Abriginal Tribes: A Field Survey. Transactins f the Ryal Sciety f Suth Australia 64(1): Tindale, N.B Abriginal Tribes f Australia. Australian Natinal University Press: Canberra Tindale, N. B. and J.B. Birdsell 1941 Results f the Harvard-Adelaide Universities Anthrplgical Expeditin : Tasmanid Tribes in Nrth Queensland. Recrds f the Suth Australian Museum 7:1-9. Wright, R.V.S Pr,ehistry f the Cape Yrk Peninsula. In D.J. Mulvaney and J. 'Clsn (Eds.) Abriginal Man and Envirnment )n Australia, pp Australian Natinal University Press: Canberra.

188 448 APPENDIX B Published in: Archaelgy at ANZAAS 1983, M. Smith ed. Pp172-l78. Western Australian Museum: Perth. (1983) EXCAVATIONS AT JIYER CAVE, NORTHEAST QUEENS~~D: SOME RESULTS NICKY HORSFALL 172

189 449 Appendix B (cnt.) 173

190 450 Appendix B (cnt.) 174

191 451 Appendix B (cnt.) 175

192 452 Appendix B (cant,) 176

193 453 Appendi x B (c nt. ) li 7

194 454 Appendix B (cant.) 178

195 455 APPENDIX C Published in: Australian Natinal Rainfrest Study Reprt t the Wrld Wildlife Fund (Australia) Vlume 1. Prceedings f a wrkshp n the past, present and future f Australian rainfrests, Griffith University, December Pp Gegraphy Department, Mnash University, fr the Australian Cnservatin Fundatin. (1984) THE PREHISTORIC OCCUPATION OF AUSTRALIAN RAINFORESTS Ni cky Hrs fa 11 James Ck University f Nrth Queensland

196 Appendix C (cnt.) 456

197 Appendix C (cant.) 457

198 Appendix C (cant.) 1158

199 Appendix C (cnt.) 459

200 Appendix C (cnt.) 460

201 Appendix C (cnt.) 461

202 Appendix C (cnt.) 462

203 Appendix C (cnt. ) 463

204 Appendix C (cant. ) 464

205 Appendix C (cnt.) 465

206 Appendix C (cnt.) 466

207 467 APPENDIX D Details f prcessing techniques fr txic plant fds in nrtheast Queensland as given In early surces Avicennia macina (A. fficinal is) Fruit put in the ashes, and cvered ver with tea-tree bark and ashes, ~ baked. It is t~en remved and put int a (sieve) dilly-bag, and washed in it, the water and debris passing thrugh: the bag with its cntents is finally dried by squeezing, and the "mush" pured nt a piece f bark and eaten (Rth 1901b:9). Beilschmiedia (Cryptcarya) bancrftii Nut rasted in its shel I, she! I cracked, kernel punded between rund and flat stne, and then saked in water, which per~lates thrugh a dilly-bag immersed in it (Rth 1901b:11). Bwenia spectabll is The thick fleshy rhizme used fr td, after being cked (Bailey 1906:188), The hard rhizme (can be eaten] after being allwed weeks t decmpsp (Banfield : 169). Bcuguieca gymnrchiza (including B. cheedi!) The elngating radicles are eaten, after being prepared as fl lws. Baked in the ashes fr sme cnsiderable time t al lw f them becming quite sft, these radicles are punded between tw stnes, the skins picked ff and thrwn aside, and the yellwish-lking mass "washed" in fresh water cntained in ne f the rdinary bark-trughs. The washing cnsists f squeezing ~p the pu!py mass with the fingers under water, al lwing it time t settle, and pucing ff the clear surface-water. After sme t~ur r five f such washings - accrding t the quantity f vegetable being treated - the pwdery-lking mass is transferred t a mre r less circular basin-shaped hle scped ut in the sand. The hle has this peculiarity, and evidently an imprtant ne, that its entire 1 ining is well damped and s smthed int shape. When the mass has been pured in, the I ining f the hle acts as a kind f fine clander, al lwing the water t pass thrugh in t the sand belw, but retaining what nw lks very mu~h : ike sme mashed mealy ptat, which indeed it als resembles smewhat in taste. Cn ccas;n, :t t much water has been pu~ea in. anc ~t is nt perclating as quickly as might be wishec. sme

208 468 Appendix D (cnt.) f the tp water is gt rid f by means f a smal I surface drain. These hles in the sand are ften t be nticed alng the cast-line, especially in the neighburhd f the mangrve swamps (Rth 1901b:l0). (Tully River] Radicle first f al I baked, then skin scraped ff, sliced up with a snail-shel I knife, and finally saked in water al I night, when it is ready fr eating (Rth 1901b:l0). Castanspermum australe On the Blmfield, this nut is nearly always btainable, but, like the Entada scandens [~ phaselidesj, it is nt rei ished. It is ne f the wrst fds t prepare, a lng time being required t wash away the disagreeable flavur, It is first f al I baked in a stne ven, then punded and sifted, put int a bark trugh, and treated with like the Discrea sativa [~ bulbife. j1] yam"(r.hislp in Rth 1901b:l0)' At Athertn, the shel Is being brken, the kernels are cmmenced t be baked abut sunrise, the cvering leaves and earth being remved abut mid-day. They are then cut up int very fine chips with a sharp shell etc., and at abut sunset are put int a lawyer-cane dilly-bag, thrugh which the creek (~.~. running water) is made t perclate, and there it remains unti I the fel lwing mrning, when it is abut ready t eat <R0th 1901b:l0). On the lwer Tully River, after the beans have been gathered, the nuts are remved, and placed in heaps in the grund-vens. After cvering with leaves and sand, a fire Is lit n tp, with the result that the nuts are practical!y steamed, a prcess ccupying frm a few hurs up t a whle day. When remved, they are sl iced up very fine with a snai J-shel 1 knife, and put in dilly-bags in a running stream fr quite a cup I e f days, when they are ready. I f nt sliced up very fine, the bitter taste remains (Rth 1901b: 10). [The Abrigines) infrmed me that they steep them in water fr five days, and then c~t them int thin sl ices and dry them i~ tne su~; tney are then punded between tw iarge stnes. and the meal being mistenea witn ~a:ec :S akec n a flat stne, raised frm the gruna a ~ew inches, with a fire burning beneatn.

209 469 Appendlx D (cnt.) afterwards saw sme f the meal baked, but it was nt very palatable (Carrn 1849:28). This bean in Its natural state cntains a strng purgative; this they extract by baking and saking in water, after which it is sliced very fine with a she! I and again saked. It is very tasteless stuff, but there are als several nuts and rts which require t be prepared in a similar manner, and all are equally tasteless (Frster in Jhnstne 1904:30).... ne f the mst plentiful, yet ne t the mst tedius and difficult f the abriginal tds t prepare. It is btainable all year rund. The mde f preparatin is as fl lws: The pds, after being gathered, are placed in heaps and pened, then cvered with leaves and si 1 t prevent burning. A tire is I ighted n tp, and kept purning all day, and next mrning the ven is pened, when it is fund that the nuts are cked r steamed. They are then sliced with a shell knife, the finer the better, as it cut t thick the bitter prperty Is nt remved. The sliced nuts are then put in a cane dillybag, and placed in a running stream, with the water cnstantly flwing thrugh and ver the sliced nuts. This is cntinued fr tw r mre days, when the slices are punded tgether and fit t be eaten (Jhnstne 1904:50-51). Cycas media When the nut is cracked, the kernel is subjected t an elabrate prcess f punding, rasting, and saking, until allis changed int a white prridge (Lumhltz 1889:181). On the Blmfield Rlve~ it is fit t eat frm July t January. The nuts are gathered by ld men, wmen, and girls. They are rasted and cracked, the kernels being kept fr sme fur r five days befre being punded up int flur by the wmen. The reasn fr letting these few days elapse is said t I ie in the fact that the delay helps t make them pund up mre finely. The punded nut is next sifted thrugh a palm-fibre dilly-bag, which, having a mesh with sma I ler interspaces than the ther varieties 8 bag, prevents the carser particles getting thrugh. The flur is next put int8 a grass di lly-bag, which has Deen prev~us;y 8:cec sideways upn itself s as t r~ a asir.-: i~e receptacle, and placed near a stream. ~:t~ t~e

210 470 Appendix D (cnt.) help f leaves acting as a trugh, water is al lwed t cntinue flwing int the receptacle, matters being s regulated that the water never verflws the edges. Fresh water is thus cntinual ly perclating thrugh the 2amla flur in its dil ly-bag clander, right thrugh the night, and in the mrning it is ready t be eaten. It may, hwever, be kept fr sme three r fur days, up t which time it is believed t imprve; it wil I nt, hwever. keep gd any lnger than that (R.Hislp in Rth 1901b:11). On the lwer Tul ly River it is steamed and cut up I ike Castanspermum australe, but rushing water is made t fall frm a height n t the cntents f the dil ly-bag held belw, s as t keep the mass bth strained and we! I-stirred - a prcess which is kept up cntinually fr quite a day (Rth 1901b:11). It bears a very~andsme cne-shaped fruit, which is cmpsed f a number f nuts. which are gathered by blacks, rasted, and cracked; the kerne!s are kept a few days, then punded int flur. then sifted thrugh a di I lybag int a large pen dil lybag, and taken t a running stream, where, with a trugh made f leaves. water Is made t cntinually flw ver the meal, but nt sufficient t wash the meal away. This is cntinued fr a day, and the meal is fit t be eaten. It wi I I keep fr tw r three days (Jhnstne 1904:50). DiQscrea bulbifera var.bujbitera (D. sativa v.rtunda) On the Blmfield, this is sui~able fr use frm abut the middle f February t abut the middle f May. the apprximate extent f the wet seasn, during which it cnstitutes the main article t diet. It is dug up and prepared fr use by bth men and wmen; but if by the frmer, it may be eaten by males nly. The actual mde f preparatin is as fl lws:- After being dug ut, it is carefully washed, and a1 1 dirt and adventitius rts remved. It is next baked in a stne ven fr abut fur hurs, at ~he end f which time it is mashed up in a grass ai I :y-bag, and then strained thrugh a di 1 lv-bag inte a bark trugh. The di I ly-bag rema:ns in the trugh, and the yam "mash", t which water has been added, is stirred abut ~na wrked ~p ~nt:. everything but the fibre and husk strains thrugh int the trugh belw. The next precess

211 471 Appendix D (cnt.) is t fill up what is nw in the trugh with water, t mix the "mess" well up, and allw it t stand therein fr a gd half-hur r s, ~.~., until such time as the water clears, when it is pured ff, and fresh water added. It smetimes takes seven r eight waters befre the disagreeable taste is remved. As sn as the ck cnsiders it fit, she digs a hle f abut the same size and shape as the inside f an rdinary wash-hand basin; this is always dne in sme sandy place, the excavatin being lined with clean sand. Int this hle the nw semi-l iquld mass is gently pured, and when the water is al 1 drained ff it is ready fr eating, the prepared article lking much I ike the rdinary preserved (tinned) ptat. It has t be eaten the same day as prepared: fermentatin takes place quickly (R.Hislp in Rth 1901b:11-12). Endi andca (CrvptQcarya-') pa 1 merstn i i The nut is rasted, cracked, kernel punded int flur, and treated in the same way as Cycas media, except that it is ready fr eating afte~ the water has been perclating fr sme five r six hurs; smetimes, hwever, it may be left in the water al I night (R.Hislp in Rth 1901 b: 11). The nut Is perfectly rund, and abut 6 inches in circumference, with a thin she 1 l. When in the fruit it Is gree and ribbed wit~ a few cnverging lines. The fruit, which is useless, fastens t the nut like glue. Hit it against sme hara substance and the fruit breaks, al lwing the nut t rl lut cleanly. The nut needs n preparatin, nly rasting till nicely brwned. Tf eaten r~w it resembles the uncked Engl ish ptat (Palmerstn :242 fr /cchy/ nut). Endiandra ubens (E, insignis) Prepared 1 ike the [E. palmerstni i J erth 1901 b: 12). * When in fruit these nuts grw t the size, shape, and clur f ur largest apples, ana are divested f their fruit Just as easl ly as :he "Chy", which they resemble in s:ze ane snape. These nuts must be eaten with cautin as :ney cntain the mst pisnus prper:les. hne~ divested f fruit and she! I they suia e p. acee in a basin-shaped ven f red ht s:nes, ana

212 472 Appendix D (cnt.) cvered ver with a layer f green ferns. In this place the nuts. and anther thick layer f green ferns n tp. heaped ver with sand; place a large fire ven ver that again. and fairly steam the nuts fr ten r twelve hurs - al I night is the rule - and they are fit fr fd next mrning (Palmerstn :242 fr / dambn / ). Entada phaselides (E. scandens) Apparently nly eaten when nthing else is available. The seed is first baked in the ashes, then cracked up, and, inside a dll ly-bag. left in running water al I night (Rth 1901 b: 12). Macadamia whelanli Kernels eaten, usually rasted (Mestn 1889). The large smth nuts used, after careful preparatin, as fd by the abrigines (Bailey in Mestn 1904:15). Pdcarpus amarus Fruit rasted, rl led, and rubbed between tw stnes, mixed with a little water. and eaten (Rth 1901b: 15). This is first rasted in its shel I, then the shel I is brken and the kernel rasted, then the dried nuts are hung up in a dilly-bag fr a shrt while. The nuts are chpped up. with a stne, and then grund fine, and sieved thrugh a dilly-bag befre being eaten (althugh this prcess can be shrtened, and [black pine] eaten after nly a few minutes preparatin) <Dixn 1977: 10). *... the main fd f the natives during abut tw mnths f the year. This fruit, which gr~s in the scrubs n the muntain tps, is f a bluish clur, and f the size f a plum. The tree is very large and has lng spreading branches, s that the natives prefer waiting unti 1 the fruit fal Is n the grund t cl imbing the trees fr it. It is gathered by the wmen and brught t the camp. where it is rasted ver the tire until the flesh is entirely bur-nt ff a:lg the kerne lis thrugh I y dne. The she l 1 ::-und tne kernel then becmes s britt!e that it!s eas! 1y peeled ff. Then the kerneis are ea:e:l e:~een tw flat stnes unti I they frm a mass : ;~e paste. When they have been beaten thcrughiy in

213 473 Appendix D (cnt.) this manner, they are placed in baskets and set in the brk t be washed ut, and the day after they are fit t be eaten. The paste, which is white as chalk and cntains much water, lks inviting, but is wei lnigh tasteless CLumhltz 1889:251 fr /tbla/). Prunus turnergna (pygeum turnerianum) On the Blmfield River, it is in seasn frm January t March. It is nly used quite fresh, as the fruit-husk must be ver the shel 1. The whle thing - fruit-husk, shel I, and kernel - is punded up tgether, sifted thrugh a palm-tree di I Iy-bag, after which the resulting meal is damped, kneaded int cakes, wrapped up in wi ld-ginger leaves, and baked in the ashes (R.Hislcp in Rth 1901b:15). * The fruit is simi lar t a sma I I black plum. A heap f them are placed in a hi lw rck in which water is pured, then the fruit is tramped ff, next divested f its shel I, then crushed int meal between tw stnes, a flat ne n the grund; the ther, a small rund ~~, kept in the hand. The meal is then placed between tw frnd-like leaves, and tasted n the cals like Jhnny-cakes. The fruit adheres t the nut which has a wrinkled surface. The fruit als cntains evil prperties, and requires saking in water fur r five hurs after it is crushed (Palmerstn :243 f~r /t-m). Tgccg lentpetg 1ides (T. pincgtifida) On the BlmfIeld, etc., this tuber is baked in the ashes, mashed up, rl led in ginger-leaves, and then baked (R.Hislp in Rth 1901b:16). ~t Cape Graftn, the tubers are punded between stnes, put in water al I day, the sediment remved and cked n ht ashes (Rth 190 1b: 16). At Red!sland It is saked, hammered, and rasted (Rth 1901b:16). On the Mrehead and Musgrave Rivers, I have seen it prepared as fl lws:- The tubers are rubbed up against a rugh stick (acting after the methd f a "nutmeg-grater") in:c a ar< :~ug~ cntaining water. The mixture is nex: pu~ thrugh a "sieve" frmec f ar. ::::::::::e~ di I Iy-bag: it is squeezed thrugn :~;s.:::0 sme fresh water cntained in anther t~ug~. ~e~e

214 474 AppendIx D (cnt.) it is allwed t settle. fr which sme time is required, then washed nce r twice, the water al lwed t run ff, and the remaining sediment scraped up with a shel I, and then cked in ht ashes I ike a "damper" (Rth 1901b:16; simi lar methds given fr the Palmer River and the Pennefather River.) *The nuts t which these descriptins apply are nly identified by Abriginal names in the I iterature, and were tentatively assigned t these species after discussins with Tny Irvine f Frest Research, CSIRO, Athertn. Nte that Harris (1975) identified /dambn/ and /t-m/ as Macadamia whelanii and Cryptcarya glbella (C.pleursperma) respectively_

215 475 APPENDIX E Index t sme cmmn plant names and synnyms fr Achras chartacea Achras phlmaniana Acrstichum aureum Allphvlus serratus almnd, Jhnstne River almnd, Queensland almnd, wild Alsphila australis Alsphila wllsiana Apngetn mns tachyn Apngetn queenslanaicus arrwrt, Plynesian Avicennia fficinalis ballana bean, black bean, matchbx black bean black pine black walnut Blechnum serrulatum blue quandng brwn pine Bruguiera rheedii Buchanania angustiflia Buchanania muelleri candlenut Canthium barbatum Careya australis Cerips candlleana cheeky yam chestnut, Mretn Bay Chilcarus australis ccky apple Clcasia macrrrhiza Cmmersnia echinata Crdia myxa Cryptcarya bancrftii Cryptcarya infectria Cryptcarya insignis Cryptcarya almerstni Cryptcarya pleursperma cunj ev i Curculig rchiides Cyathea ceri Cymbidium albuciflrum Davidsn's plum Derris uliginsa Discrea sativa var. elngata Discrea sativa var. rtunda Drymphleum nrmanbyi Elaecarpus sphaericus Elecharis shacelata see Planchnella chartacea Planchnella phlmaniana Acrstichum secisum Allphylus c6be Elaecarpus bancrftii Elaecarpus bancrftii Prunus turnerana Cyathea australis Cvathea wllsiana Apngetn natans Apngetn natans Tacca lentpetalides Avicennia marina Musa spp. GaStanspermum australe Entacla phaselides Castanspermum australe Pdcarpus amarus Endiandra palmerstnii Blechnum indicum Elaecarpus grandis Pdcarpus elatus Bruguiera gymnrhiza Buchanania arbrescens Buchanania arbrescens Aleurites mluccana Canthium cprsmides Planchnia careya Cerips tagal Discrea bulbifera var. bulbifera Castanspermum australe Meldinus australis Planchnia careya Alcasia macrrrhiza Cmmersnia bartramia Crdia dichtma Beilschmiedia bancrftii cr~ptcarya murrayi En iandra pubens End i and r a pa line rs tn i i Cryptcarya glbella Alcasia macrrrhiza Curculip, ensiflia Cvathea wllsiana Cymbidium madidun Davidsnia ruriens Derris trifliate Discrea bulbifera var. elngata Discrea hulbifera var. Sulbifera Nrnanbva nrmanbvl Elaecarp~s grandis Elechar:s dulcis

216 476 Appendix E (cnt.) fr Elettaria scttiana Endiandra insignis Entada scandens Eugenia crmiflra Eugenia grandis Eugenia hislpii Eugenia kuranda Eugenia leptantha Eugenia subrbicularis Ficus ehretiides Ficus esmeralda Ficus eugeniides Ficus glmerata Ficus nit ida Ficus rbicularis Ficus pilsa Ficus retusa Ficus sten~carpa Ficus thynneana fig finger cherry Flueggea micrcarpa Fluggea bvata Garcinia cherryi grass-tree grey mangrve hairy walnut Hardenbergia retusa Helecharis sphacelata Helicia diversiflia HeBda whelani Hellenia cerulea Hibiscus ficulneus Hicksbeachia diversiflia Hrnstedtia sctti Hugnia jenkinsii Imperata arundinacea Ixra klanderana Jhnstne River almnd Kur~nda quand~r.g Laprtea spp. laywer cane/vine Lepirnia mucrnata Licuala muelleri Lucuma galactxyln Macrzamia hpei mangrve, grey mang rve, red Marlea vitiensis matchbx bean ('lelia cmsita l1elia dubia Meldinus murpe F.M.Bail. Mimusps parviflia R.Br. Mllinedia subternata Mretn Bay cnestnut see Hrnstedtia scttiana Endiandra pubens Entada haselides Syzygium crmiflrum Syzygium grande Syzygium erythrcalyx Syzygium kuranda Acmenasperma claviflrum Syzygium subrbiculare Ficus variegata Ficus virgata Ficus bliqua Ficus racemsa Ficus micrcarpa Ficus ppsita Ficus drupacea Ficus micrcara Ficus fraseri ' Ficus micrcarpa var. latiflia Ficus spp. RhOdOmyrtus macrcarpa Securine~a melanthesides S~curinega melanthesides Ternstremia cherryi Xanthrrhea spp. Avicennia marina Endiandra pubens Vandasia retusa Elecharis dulcis Athertnia diversiflia Macadamia whelanii Alpinia caerula Abelmschus ficulneus Athertnia diversiflia Hrnstedtla scttiana Durandea jenkinsii Imperata cylindrica var.majr Ixra timrensis Elaecarpus bancrftii Elaecarpus bancrftii Dendrcnide spp. Calamus SPD. Lepirnia articulata Licuala ra11j$ayi pala3uium galactxvln Lepi zamia hpei Avicennia marina Bruguiera gvmnrhiza Alan~ium viilsum Enta a phaselides 1 1 eli a a zed a r a c h ( lel ia azedarach Meldius bacellianus HimusDs e1enisi Tetrasvnanura l~~iflra CastasDer~um australe

217 477 Appendix E (cnt.) fr Husa brwlli i Myrsine crassiflia Nauclea cadunata Nelumbium specisum Nrmanbya muelleri Panax murrayi Pandanus dratissimus pine, black pine, brwn Planchnia crenata Plectrnia barbata Pleigynium slandri Pdcarpus pedunculatus p isn \.,ralnut Plynesian arrwrt Pngamia glabra Pygeum turnerianum quandng, blue quandng, Kuranda Queensland almnd red mangrve Rhaphidphra lvellae Rh~phidphra pinnata. RhLZphra tagal rickety nut Russell River nut Sarccephalus crdatus Sarccephalus leichhardtii Schmidelia serrata Siderxyln brwnlessianum Siderxvln chartaceum Siderxyln dugulla spike rush Stephania hernandiaeflia stinging tree Syzygium hislpii Syzvgium leptanthum Tabernaemntana rientalis Tacca brwnii Tacca pinnatifida Vitis acetsa Vitis clematidea walnut, black walnut, hairy walnut, pisn walnut, ye llw wild almnd Xertes lngiflia Xertes multiflra yam yam yam, cheeky yellw walnut see t-lusa banksii Rapanea prsa Nauclea riental is Nelumb nucifera Nrmanbya nrmanbyi Plyscias murrayi Pandanus spiralis Pdcarpus amarus Pdcarpus elatus Planchnia careya Canthium cprsmides Pleigynum timrense Pdcarpus amarus Cryptcarya glbella Tacca lentpetalides Pngamia pinnata Prunus turnerana Elaecarpus grandis Elaecarpus bancrftii Elaecarpus bancrftii Bruguiera gymnrhiza Epipremnum mirabile Epipremnum mirabile Cerips tagal Cycas media Omphalea queenslandiae Nauclea rientalis Nauclea rientalis Allphylus cbbe Planchnella brmmlessiana Planchnella chartacea Planchnella phlmaniana Ste Elecharis dulcis hania japnica Den 8rcnide sp. Syzygium erythrcalyx Acmenasperma claviflrum Ervatamia rientalis TaC"Calentpetalides Tacca lentetalides Ampelcissus acetsa Cavratia clematidea Endiandra palmerstnii Endiandra pubens Cryptcarva glbella BeilscnmTedia bancrftii Prunus tur:lerana Lmandra lngiflia Lmandra multiflra Discrea bulbifera val. elngata Discrea transversa Discrea bulbitera var. bulbifera Beilschmiedia bancrftii