18.2 Geological Events

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1 18.2 Geological Events Landforms are not the only effect of plate tectonics. Volcanoes and earthquakes (Figure 1) are effects that can happen so quickly and with such drama that they make international news headlines. You learned that many volcanoes and earthquakes line up along plate boundaries. Are they related? Do they happen in other places? Read on to find out. rift valley oceanic trench mid-ocean ridge earthquakes volcanic belt volcanoes lithosphere oceanic crust continental crust asthenosphere earthquakes hot mantle Figure 1 Volcanoes are found where fractures in the lithosphere give magma a path to the surface or where a hot spot in the mantle has melted through the lithosphere. Earthquakes occur as plates bump past each other. Volcanoes A volcano marks a crack in the lithosphere where magma (molten rock) and gases reach Earth s surface. Once magma reaches the surface, it is called lava. Magma forms deep underground when the (mostly) solid rock of the asthenosphere experiences at least one of three things, each of which results in increased melting of the rock: a drop in pressure (e.g., at a crack in the crust); a change in composition (e.g., in the subduction zone); or an increase in temperature (e.g., above a hot spot or convection upwelling). Volcanoes at Mid-Ocean Ridges The energy in tectonic movements stresses the lithosphere, creating cracks and crevices. When the crust tears, it relieves pressure on the mantle below and magma expands into the path to the surface (Figure 2). Along the thin 522 Unit F Plate Tectonics

2 crust of mid-ocean ridges, the magma reaches the surface with much of the same properties it had in the mantle. It is very hot and flows easily as lava, building volcanoes. Figure 2 In the news, we learn of the dramatic and destructive force in a volcanic eruption. However, most volcanoes are not explosive, due to the low gas content of their magma. Eruptions can take many forms and last for long periods of time. Hot Spots and Volcanic Island Chains Hot spots are small regions of very hot mantle, thought to be heated by a concentration of radioactive substances near Earth s core. This heat creates very hot columns of rising mantle, which cause the lithosphere to thin out and crack as it bulges up. Eventually, magma bursts through the weakened lithosphere over the hot spot, forming a volcano (Figure 3). LEARNING TIP Active readers adjust their reading to fit the difficulty of the text. If you find a topic difficult to understand, take note of the subheadings (as they divide the topic into smaller chunks), read more slowly, and reread. lithosphere asthenosphere hot spot Figure 3 Hot spots can form enormous volcanoes. Measured from the ocean floor, the island of Hawaii is taller than Mt. Everest Geological Events 523

3 Did You KNOW? A Canadian Idea Hot spots were first proposed by Canadian geophysicist J. Tuzo Wilson in 1963 to explain the chain of Hawaiian Islands and seamounts that extend all the way to the North Pacific. Wilson was one of the founders of the plate tectonic theory, along with Hess, Deitz, Matthews, and Vine. The hot spot stays in place as the lithosphere moves over it. As the plate moves away from the hot spot, the volcano becomes less active. Eventually the hot spot forms a new volcano. This creates a chain of volcanoes stretching away from the hot spot in the direction of plate motion. If the hot spot is beneath ocean, it creates a chain of islands (like the Hawaiian Islands examined in Investigation 17A). If the hot spot is beneath a continent, it creates a chain of volcanoes such as the Anahim Belt in central B.C., which contains the Nazko Cone right over the hot spot. Volcanic Belts and Island Arcs The crust pulled into the mantle at a subduction zone contains a significant amount of trapped water. The increasing temperature releases water as steam, which lowers the melting point of the mantle rock (like salting ice on the road), and generates magma along the boundary between the descending lithosphere and the asthenosphere. This magma then melts its way upward, following cracks and crevices caused by stress in the subduction zone. Between km from the ocean trench, the magma reaches the surface of the overriding plate, creating a row of volcanoes roughly parallel to the boundary: A volcanic belt, or chain of inland volcanoes, is created on an overriding continent parallel to a convergent boundary (Figure 4). A volcanic island arc, or line of volcanic islands, is created on an overriding oceanic plate parallel to an oceanic oceanic boundary. Figure 4 Inland from the subduction zone, magma percolates up through cracks in the overriding plate, forming volcanic belts on continents, and volcanic island arcs in oceans. Mt. Baker is an active volcano in the Cascade volcanic belt whose magma is generated by the subducting Juan de Fuca Plate. 524 Unit F Plate Tectonics

4 Earthquakes Boundaries between Earth s tectonic plates are the source of many earthquakes, vibrations through Earth s crust caused by volcanoes and movement along plate boundaries (tectonic activity). You will never feel the vast majority of earthquakes that happen continually throughout the world; a passing bus causes more vibration. The Shuddering Slide The movement of tectonic plates along boundaries is not smooth; the plates are enormous, made of solid rock, and subjected to tremendous compression and stretch. The edges of plates are not even, and friction causes them to deform, bend, lift, and crack. Earthquakes occur at all types of plate boundaries, whether the plates are sliding one under the other in a subduction zone, sliding past one another along a transform fault, or being pulled apart at a divergent boundary. Energy is stored in the deforming plates, like the energy in a compressed spring. Eventually, the tectonic forces are strong enough to overcome the friction, and the plates lurch ahead (Figure 5), releasing the stored energy as earthquakes. A fault is a displacement of the lithosphere (vertically, horizontally, or both) created by the movement of tectonic plates. Earthquake Locations The source of an earthquake within the lithosphere is called the focus.the epicentre is found on the surface, directly above the focus. Most earthquakes occur along tectonic plate boundaries, due to the movement of the plates themselves (Figure 6). boundary Figure 5 When plates move past one another, friction at the boundary deforms the lithosphere. Eventually, tectonic forces build up and overcome the friction, releasing the stored energy as an earthquake. EUROPE ASIA NORTH AMERICA LEARNING TIP Examine Figure 6. How do the parts of the map relate to each other? How do the symbols in the legend help to explain the information in the map? AFRICA SOUTH AMERICA AUSTRALIA ANTARCTICA shallow intermediate deep Figure 6 Plotted on a map, earthquake epicentres for clearly outline some plate boundaries Geological Events 525

5 Table 1 Category shallowfocus intermediatefocus Earthquake Categories Depth of focus (km) Region within Earth 0 70 crust subduction zone deep-focus mantle Earthquakes are categorized according to how far beneath Earth s surface the focus occurs: shallow-focus, intermediate-focus,ordeep-focus (Table 1 and Figure 7). shallow-focus earthquakes intermediate-focus earthquakes deep-focus earthquakes epicentre focus Figure 7 Earthquakes are categorized by the depth at which they occur. Seismic Waves Earthquakes transmit mechanical energy in the form of seismic waves, mechanical waves or vibrations in Earth. There are two main types of seismic waves: body waves and surface waves. Body waves travel through a medium, such as sound waves travelling through air. Earthquakes cause two types of body waves: primary and secondary (Figure 8). Primary waves (P waves) are compression waves: the particles in the medium vibrate forward and backward along the path of the wave. P waves can travel through solids, liquids, or gases; they pass through all the layers of Earth. Secondary waves (S waves) are shear waves: the particles in the medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction of the wave. S waves travel more slowly and can only travel through solid rock, not through Earth s liquid core. Both P and S waves vibrate through Earth from the earthquake s focus. Measuring the changes in a wave s speed and direction has provided evidence about the internal structure of the planet (Figure 9). Figure 8 Primary waves (P waves) cause motion parallel to the direction of travel, like a worm crawling. Secondary waves (S waves) cause perpendicular motion, like a snake slithering. earthquake focus P waves S waves inner core outer core mantle Figure 9 P and S waves can be detected around Earth, but surface waves (not shown) fade over a few hundred kilometres even in the largest earthquakes. 526 Unit F Plate Tectonics

6 Surface waves travel along the outside of Earth, causing the most destruction (Figure 10). They are created when body waves reach the surface. These waves travel more slowly than body waves, and their range is limited to a few hundred kilometres. Like waves in the water, the motion of surface waves decreases significantly with depth. Scientists use devices called seismographs to detect earthquake waves. With data from seismograph stations around the globe, triangulation is used to find the epicentre. 18A Investigation 18A Investigation Where Was That Earthquake? To perform this investigation, turn to page 532. Figure 10 Earthquakes can be very destructive. Water recedes from the shoreline as the first tsunami wave approaches shore. TRY THIS: Making Waves Skills Focus: analyzing, creating models, evaluating, observing Materials: long toy spring, 5 cm string, 20 L tub of water, rectangular pan of gelatin 1. Flag a single coil in the middle of the spring by tying the string around it. Now stretch the spring out. 2. Simulate P waves by bunching up several coils near one end, then releasing. How does the flagged coil move? Record your observations. 3. Simulate S waves by quickly jerking one end of the spring upward or sideways. How does the flagged coil move? 4. Place your hand underwater on the bottom of the tub of water then quickly raise one finger. This will simulate P waves travelling toward the surface, causing surface waves. 5. Rhythmically press down and forward at one end of the gelatin slab. 6. At the same spot, shake the surface of the gelatin from side to side. Steps 5 and 6 simulate surface waves. A. Describe how the spring s coils moved during the P and S wave simulations. B. Explain why water cannot be used to show how S waves cause surface waves. C. Can gelatin simulate surface waves? Explain. D. What can seismic waves tell us about Earth s structure? 18.2 Geological Events 527

7 18.2 CHECK YOUR Understanding 1. Describe how the magma is generated for volcanoes parallel to a subduction zone. 2. What two factors result in a volcano at a plate boundary? 3. Why are volcanoes found at mid-ocean ridges but not at ocean trenches? 4. What causes a hot spot in the mantle? 5. Explain why hot spot volcanoes appear as volcanic chains in the middle of an oceanic plate (Figure 11). 9. The three largest earthquakes in recorded history have occurred in subduction zones. How does the plate tectonic theory explain this? Consider the processes that occur along all three types of plate boundaries. 10. What are the two main types of seismic waves? Explain the difference between the two types. 11. Which type of seismic wave travels farthest through Earth? Why? 12. In 2005 and 2006, several major earthquakes occurred in Pakistan and Iran, located to the north and west of India (Figure 12). Why does the theory of plate tectonics support the occurrence of earthquakes in these countries? What type of plate boundary exists near these two countries? lithosphere Iran Pakistan asthenosphere hot spot India Figure How are the terms focus and epicentre linked? 7. Draw a graphic organizer to compare the three categories of earthquake: shallow-focus, intermediate-focus, and deep-focus. 8. At what type of plate boundary are deepfocus earthquakes likely to occur? What causes them? Figure Unit F Plate Tectonics

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