Engineering Geology ECIV 3302

Transcription

1 Engineering Geology ECIV 3302 Instructor : Dr. Jehad Hamad Chapter (7) Metamorphic Rocks

2 Chapter 7 Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks

3 Metamorphism The transition of one rock into another by temperatures and/or pressures unlike those in which it formed Metamorphic rocks are produced from Igneous rocks Sedimentary rocks Other metamorphic rocks

4 Metamorphism Metamorphism progresses incrementally from low-grade to high-grade During metamorphism the rock must remain essentially solid Metamorphic settings Contact or thermal metamorphism driven by a rise in temperature within the host rock

5 Metamorphism Metamorphic settings Hydrothermal metamorphism chemical alterations from hot, ion-rich water Regional metamorphism Occurs during mountain building produces the greatest volume of metamorphic rock Rocks usually display zones of contact and/or hydrothermal metamorphism

6 Two types of metamorphism are: (1) regional metamorphism and (2) contact or thermal metamorphism.

7 The agents of metamorphism include Heat, Pressure (stress), and Chemically Active Fluids.

8 Heat is perhaps the most important because it provides the energy to drive the reactions that result in the recrystallization of minerals.

9 Metamorphic processes cause many changes in rocks, including increased density, growth of larger mineral crystals,

10 reorientation of the mineral grains into a layered or banded appearance known as foliation, and the formation of new minerals.

11 Some common metamorphic rocks with a foliated texture include slate, schist, and gneiss.

12 Metamorphic rocks with a nonfoliated texture include marble and quartzite.

13 Agents of metamorphism Heat Most important agent Recrystallization results in new, stable minerals Two sources of heat Contact metamorphism heat from magma An increase in temperature with depth due to the geothermal gradient

14 Agents of metamorphism Pressure and differential stress Increases with depth Confining pressure applies forces equally in all directions Rocks may also be subjected to differential stress which is unequal in different directions

15 Pressure in metamorphism

16 Agents of metamorphism Chemically active fluids Mainly water with other volatile components Enhances migration of ions Aids in recrystallization of existing minerals

17 Agents of metamorphism Chemically active fluids Sources of fluids Pore spaces of sedimentary rocks Fractures in igneous rocks Hydrated minerals such as clays and micas

18 Agents of metamorphism The importance of parent rock Most metamorphic rocks have the same overall chemical composition as the parent rock from which they formed Mineral makeup determines, to a large extent, the degree to which each metamorphic agent will cause change

19 Metamorphic textures Texture refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grains Foliation any planar arrangement of mineral grains or structural features within a rock Examples of foliation Parallel alignment of platy and/or elongated minerals

20 Metamorphic textures Foliation Examples of foliation Parallel alignment of flattened mineral grains and pebbles Compositional banding Slaty cleavage where rocks can be easily split into thin, tabular sheets

21 Metamorphic textures Foliation Foliation can form in various ways including Rotation of platy and/or elongated minerals Recrystallization of minerals in the direction of preferred orientation Changing the shape of equidimensional grains into elongated shapes that are aligned

22 Foliation resulting from directed stress

23 Foliated textures Metamorphic textures Rock or slaty cleavage Closely spaced planar surfaces along which rocks split Can develop in a number of ways depending on metamorphic conditions and parent rock

24 Metamorphic textures Foliated textures Schistosity Platy minerals are visible with the unaided eye and exhibit a planar or layered structure Rocks having this texture are referred to as schist

25 Metamorphic textures Foliated textures Gneissic During higher grades of metamorphism, ion migration results in the segregation of minerals Gneissic rocks exhibit a distinctive stripy appearance

26 Large grains, called porphyroblasts, surrounded by a fine-grained matrix of other minerals Metamorphic textures Other metamorphic textures Those metamorphic rocks that lack foliation are referred to as nonfoliated Develop in environments where deformation is minimal Typically composed of minerals that exhibit equidimensional crystals Porphyroblastic textures

27 Common metamorphic rocks Foliated rocks Slate Very fine-grained Excellent rock cleavage Most often generated from low-grade metamorphism of shale, mudstone, or siltstone

28 Common metamorphic rocks Foliated rocks Phyllite Gradation in the degree of metamorphism between slate and schist Platy minerals not large enough to be identified with the unaided eye Glossy sheen and wavy surfaces Exhibits rock cleavage Composed mainly of fine crystals of muscovite and/or chlorite

29 Slate (left) and phyllite (right)

30 Common metamorphic rocks Foliated rocks Schist Medium- to coarse-grained Platy minerals (mainly micas) predominate The term schist describes the texture To indicate composition, mineral names are used (such as mica schist)

31 Garnet-mica schist

32 Common metamorphic rocks Foliated rocks Gneiss Medium- to coarse-grained Stripy appearance High-grade metamorphism Often composed of white or light-colored feldsparrich layers with strips of dark ferromagnesian minerals

33 Classifying metamorphic rocks

34 Common metamorphic rocks Nonfoliated rocks Marble Coarse, crystalline Parent rock was limestone or dolostone Composed essentially of calcite or dolomite crystals Used as a decorative and monument stone Exhibits a variety of colors

35 Marble

36 Common metamorphic rocks Nonfoliated rocks Quartzite Formed from a parent rock of quartz-rich sandstone Quartz grains are glued together

37 Quartzite

38 Metamorphic Environments (1) Contact or thermal metamorphism; (2) hydrothermal metamorphism; (3) burial and subduction zone metamorphism; (4) regional metamorphism; (5) metamorphism along faults;

39 Metamorphic environments Contact or thermal metamorphism Result from a rise in temperature when magma invades a host rock A zone of alteration called an aureole forms in the rock surrounding the magma Most easily recognized when it occurs at the surface, or in a near-surface environment

40 Contact metamorphism

41 Metamorphic environments Hydrothermal metamorphism Chemical alteration caused when hot, ion-rich fluids, called hydrothermal solutions, circulate through fissures and cracks that develop in rock Most widespread along the axis of the mid-ocean ridge system

42 Hydrothermal metamorphism

43 Metamorphic environments Regional metamorphism Produces the greatest quantity of metamorphic rock Associated with mountain building

44 Metamorphic environments Other metamorphic environments Burial metamorphism Associated with very thick sedimentary strata Required depth varies depending on the existing geothermal gradient Metamorphism along fault zones Occurs at depth and high temperatures Pre-existing minerals deform by plastic flow

45 Metamorphic zones Systematic variations in the mineralogy and textures of metamorphic rocks are related to the variations in the degree of metamorphism Index minerals and metamorphic grade Changes in mineralogy occur from regions of lowgrade metamorphism to regions of high-grade metamorphism

46 Metamorphism and plate tectonics Most metamorphism occurs along convergent plate boundaries Compressional stresses deform the edges of the plate Formation of Earth s major mountain belts including the Alps, Himalayas, and Appalachians

47 Metamorphism and plate tectonics Large-scale metamorphism also occurs along subduction zones at convergent boundaries Several metamorphic environments exist here Important site of magma generation

48 Metamorphism and plate tectonics Metamorphism at subduction zones Mountainous terrains along subduction zones exhibit distinct linear belts of metamorphic rocks High-pressure, low-temperature zones nearest the trench High-temperature, low-pressure zones further inland in the region of igneous activity

49 Metamorphic environments and plate tectonics

50