The World Ocean. Pacific Ocean 181 x 10 6 km 2. Indian Ocean 74 x 10 6 km 2. Atlantic Ocean 106 x 10 6 km 2

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1 The World Ocean The ocean and adjacent seas cover 70.8% of the surface of Earth, an area of 361,254,000 km 2 Pacific Ocean 181 x 10 6 km 2 Indian Ocean 74 x 10 6 km 2 Atlantic Ocean 106 x 10 6 km 2 Oceanic dimensions range from around 1500 km for the minimum width of the Atlantic to more than 13,000 km for the north-south extent of the Atlantic and the width of the Pacific. Typical depths are only 3-4 km. ===> the horizontal dimensions of ocean basins are 1,000 times greater than the vertical dimension. A scale model of the Pacific, the size of an 8.5 in x 11 in sheet of paper, would have dimensions similar to the paper: a width of 10,000 km scales to 10 in, and a depth of 3 km scales to in, the typical thickness of a piece of paper!

2 The Ocean s average depth is 3,790 meters (12,430 ft) Nearly half of the world's marine waters are over 3,000 meters (9,800 ft) deep.

3 Ocean bathymetry and schematic cross-section The sea-floor topography of the ocean with 3km resolution produced from satellite altimeter observations of the shape of the sea surface. From Smith and Sandwell. Schematic section through the ocean showing principle features of the sea floor. Note that this plot is greatly exaggerated in the vertical.

4 Ocean cross-section Cross-Section of the South Atlantic along 25 S showing the continental shelf offshore of South America, a seamount near 35 W, the mid-atlantic Ridge near 14 W, the Walvis Ridge near 6 E, and the narrow continential shelf off South America. Vertical exaggeration of 180:1.

5 Properties of the seawater Key variables Temperature, salinity, density, pressure Light, nutrients, chlorophyll, primary productivity, biomass (plankton, fish), carbon (particulate and dissolved), oxygen

6 Sea Surface Temperature 28 September 2010

7 Annual Mean Sea Surface Temperature

8 Salinity Originally salinity was defined to be the "Total amount of dissolved material in grams in one kilogram of sea water." This is not useful because the dissolved material is almost impossible to measure in practice. Salinity Based on Chlorinity Because the above definition was difficult to implement in practice, because salinity is directly proportional to the amount of chlorine in sea water, and because chlorine can be measured accurately by a simple chemical analysis, salinity S was redefined using chlorinity: S = Cl where chlorinity Cl is defined as "the mass of silver required to precipitate completely the halogens in kg of the sea-water sample.

9 Major Constituents of Sea Water Ion Atoms 55.3% Chlorine 55.3% Chlorine 30.8% Sodium 30.8% Sodium 7.7% Sulfate 3.7% Magnesium 3.7% Magnesium 2.6% Sulfur 1.2% Calcium 1.2% Calcium 1.1% Potassium 1.1% Potassium

10 Major Constituents of Sea Water

11 Salinity of the World Ocean Practical Salinity Scale of 1978 Salinity is now defined using only conductivity. All water samples with the same conductivity ratio have the same salinity. S = K 15 1/ K K 15 3/ K K 15 5/2 where K 15 = C (S,15,0) / C (KCl,15,0) Figure 6.1 Histogram of temperature and salinity of cold water in the oceans. Height is proportional to volume. Height of highest peak corresponds to a volume of 26 million cubic kilometers per bivariate class of 0.1 C and 0.01psu. From Worthington (1981).

12 Annual precipitation TRMM

13 Annual evaporation from the ocean

14 Precipitation - Evaporation (meters / year) Precipitation minus evaporation in meters per year calculated from global rainfall by the Global Precipitation Climatology Project and latent heat flux calculated by the Data Assimilation Office, both at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. Precipitation exceeds evaporation in the shaded regions, contour interval is 0.5m.

15 Annual mean surface salinity

16 Density of Seawater The density of surface seawater ranges from about 1,020 to 1,029 kg/m 3, depending on the temperature and salinity. The mean temperature of the ocean's waters is: T = 3.5 C The mean salinity is S = 34.7 The distribution about the mean is small: 50% of the water is in the range: 1.3 C < T < 3.8 C 34.6 psu < S < 34.8 psu

17 Vertical Structure and Heat Fluxes Vertical profile of temperature, salinity, and density The mixed layer and thermocline Heat gain and loss: seasonal change of temperature Seasonal variation of the mixed layer depth The heat budget Air-sea flux The meridional heat flux

18 Vertical Distribution of Temperature, Salinity, and Density in the Ocean

19 Seasonal Cycle of Mixed Layer, Shallow Thermocline, and Deep Thermocline

20 Seasonal Thermocline

21 Role of the oceans in climate system heat exchange and transport hydrological cycle and air-sea exchange of moisture gas exchange and carbon cycle wind and current

22 The Mean Annual Radiation and Heat-Balance of the Earth

23 geographic distribution of net radiation (annual average) low latitudes have a surplus of energy per unit area, high latitudes a deficit

24 heat budget

25 Heat Gain and Loss from Oceans Heat gained by the oceans at low latitudes (orange) equals heat lost at high latitudes (blue) -- Ocean heat budget is balanced

26 Poleward heat flux

27 Poleward heat flux

28 Ocean Heat Transport

29 annual mean heat flux over the Atlantic Ocean negative (red) values represent the atmosphere being warmed by heat transferred from the ocean. in blue areas the ocean is gaining heat from the sun Atlantic air/sea heat flux

30 air/sea CO 2 fluxes

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