Next opportunity to observe the Moon and Venus close together: Dec. 31, Announcements
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1 Announcements Last OWL homework: due 12/15 before midnight Study guide for final exam is up on the class webpage Practice exam up Thursday afternoon Final exam: Monday, Dec. 15, 10:30 AM, Hasbrouck 20 Next opportunity to observe the Moon and Venus close together: Dec. 31, 2008 Good resource for information about observing the sky: Astro 101, 12/9/08 The planets and the Moon are (more or less) always in the ecliptic plane (the path followed by the Sun over the course of the year) Evening sky in 2002 (New Jersey) The fact that the planets all line up in the ecliptic plane is an observation that supports the nebular theory the planets all formed in the disk that once surrounded the sun, and we are looking at the plane of that disk edge-on Nebular Theory of Solar System Formation Gas cloud protosolar disk Sun & Patterns of motion. Orbits are planets We have a theory that can explain the formation of the Solar System. 1) mostly circular 2) in the same direction (counterclockwise) 3) in (mostly) the same plane. Next 4) question: rotations are also how (mostly) does in the counterclockwise direction Two classes of planets: terrestrial & jovian by? Asteroids & comets Weirdos (e.g., Uranus is tipped way over, Triton has a retrograde orbit) Solar System evolve as time goes 1
2 Terrestrial Planet Surfaces Notice the variety amongst these objects! Mercury & Moon: craters from early heavy bombardment period, some signs of volcanic activity (long ago). No atmospheres Gas pressure is a key ingredient of a planetary atmosphere Pressure is caused by microscopic collisions, so ultimately it is due to conservation of momentum (momentum = m x v) Pressure = constant x density x temperature In equilibrium, the outside pressure equals the inside pressure so that the forces are exactly balanced Terrestrial Planet Surfaces Venus: still active volcanos? Earth and Mars: strongest evidence of water (and therefore possibly life), canyons and volcanos (no longer active on Mars), substantial atmospheres Like the air in a balloon, a planetary atmosphere finds equilibrium At any point in an atmosphere, the pressure adjusts to balance against the weight of the gas and keep the atmosphere in equilibrium Descending deeper into an atmosphere, the weight increases so pressure must increase too to maintain balance. When the gas deeper in the atmosphere is compressed, its density increases so its pressure increases as well. The effect of pressure stops gravity from pulling all of the atmosphere down to the surface. 2
3 Key differences between Earth and Mars: the surfaced temperature and pressure are much lower on Mars. WHY? PRS Question: The inside of the Earth is 1. Entirely molten rock, i.e., magma 2. Entirely solid rock 3. Mostly magma with a small amount of solid rock 4. Mostly solid rock with a small amount of molten rock Only the outer core inside the Earth is entirely molten (liquid) rock However, the solid rock can flow, it just occurs much more slowly than liquid flow The challenge of geology Like astronomers, geologists cannot directly sample some of the most important objects for understanding geology The key processes that drive geology occur deep inside the planets, far beyond the reach of surface drills 3
4 Measurement of planetary interior properties Newton s version of Kepler s third law: total mass of planet. Combined with measurement of radii, we can estimate the average density of a planet: density = mass/volume Precise measurements of gravity reveal internal structure Magnetic fields originate deep inside Surface processes, e.g., volcanos, reveal interior composition On the Earth and Moon, additional information is available from seismic waves When an earthquake occurs, vibrations travel through the Earth as well as across its surface: seismic waves Two types of seismic waves occur: P waves and S waves P waves can travel through solid or liquid, but S waves can only go through solids Only P waves are detected on the opposite side of the world; therefore liquid must be inside to stop the S waves Terrestrial World Internal Structure Shortly after they formed, the still molten planets differentiated into three zones: core - highest density, composed of metals (Ni, Fe) mantle - less dense rock between core and surface crust - lowest density rock on surface Lithosphere - the rigid, outer layer of crust & part of the mantle which does not deform easily Unusually, the Sun is not an important heating source in terrestrial planet interiors. Sunlight only penetrates a few meters into the surface of the Earth. Differentiation: in liquid, dense materials sink to bottom, less dense stuff rises to surface 4
5 Heating the Terrestrial Worlds Heating the Terrestrial Worlds 1. Accretion: gravitational potential energy from colliding objects converted to heat inside the planet. 2. Differentiation: light materials rise to the surface and dense materials sink to the core. The sinking dense materials also convert gravitational potential energy into thermal energy inside the planet. 3. Radioactive decay: radioactive isotopes fill the interior, and when they radioactively decay, they release energy into the interior. Heating the Terrestrial Worlds Planetary interiors heat up through: accretion differentiation radioactivity Supplies all the heat at the beginning Supplies heat throughout the planet s life Cooling the Terrestrial Worlds Planets cool off through: conduction - heat flowing on the microscopic level convection - heat flowing on the macroscopic level (bulk motions) eruptions - hot lava bursts through crust thermal radiation - continuum light emitted by the planet carries away energy the larger the planet, the longer it takes to cool off! 5
6 HEATING Heating Processes vs. Cooling Processes Accretion Differentiation Radioactive decay COOLING Convection Conduction Volcanic eruptions Thermal Radiation (Light) The competition of these processes causes the evolution of terrestrial planet interiors. Cooling: small worlds cool more rapidly than big ones As long as the interior is hotter than the surface, thermal radiation will carry away energy from the surface The area of the surface controls the rate at which energy is radiated away The amount of heat deposited by radioactive decay depends on the volume of the object Area of sphere = Volume of sphere = 4 π R 2 4 π R 3 3 Cooling vs. Heating: Moon vs. Earth Inside the Terrestrial Worlds Bottom line: size matters Cooling is proportional to surface area Heating is proportional to volume The Earth cools 13 times more quickly than the Moon The heating of the Earth is 50 times greater than the heating of the Moon The Earth stays hot inside much longer than the Moon. active geology Larger cooled slowly inactive geology Smaller cooled more rapidly 6
7 The role of the lithosphere Convection is the most important process for transporting internal heat to the surface. In terrestrial planets, convection is mostly occuring in solid rock. In Earth, it takes 100 million years for solid rock to convect up to near the surface. When a convection cell hits the lithosphere, it stops. If the lithosphere is thick enough, convection is shut down all together. The Earth s magnetic field is highly beneficial Useful for navigation The magnetosphere deflects charged particles in the solar wind and places the Earth inside a protected bubble Northern lights require magnetosphere The Earth is a giant electromagnet Three requirements for a substantial magnetic field Electrically conducting fluid region inside (metal conducts nicely) Convection in the fluid region Moderately rapid rotation As a planet cools off, its surface becomes more rigid. Eventually, this stops convection. When convection stops, the magnetic field disappears. The Story of Mars Young Mars had a thick atmosphere, water on its surface, and a strong magnetic field. As time passed, Mars cooled off. Eventually, convection stopped inside Mars and the magnetic field turned off. Without a magnetic field, Mars was sand blasted by the solar wind. The solar wind stripped away enough of the CO 2 in the Martian atmosphere so that the greenhouse effect became very weak. This caused it to become much colder and unable to sustain surface water! 7
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