GIS Data Conversion: Strategies, Techniques, and Management
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1 GIS Data Conversion: Strategies, Techniques, and Management Pat Hohl, Editor SUB G6ttlngen A11838 ONWORD P R E S S V
2 Contents SECTION 1: Introduction 1 Introduction and Overview 3 Ensuring Successful Conversion 3 Book Audience 4 Who, What, Why, Where, and When? 5 Different Perspectives 6 Book Organization ' 7 Introduction and Overview 7 Project Management 7 GIS Data Sources 9 Data Conversion/Input Methodologies 9 Quality Control/Quality Assurance 10 Summary 10 Chapter 2: Data, the Foundation of GIS 11 Data Definitions 11 Information versus Data 11 Precision versus Accuracy 13 Data Types 14 Spatial Data 15 Attribute Data 17 Temporal Data 17 Metadata 17 Data Sources 17 Measured Data 18 Inferred Data 18 Imported (and Converted) Data 18 Data Processing 18 Acquisition.../>. 19 Retrieval 19 Analysis 19 Presentation 19
3 viii GIS Data Conversion Converting, Exporting, and Importing 20 Relational Data Model 20 Entities 20 Relationships 21 Normalization 21 Conclusion 25 References 26 SECTION 2: Project Management 27 Chapter 3: Conversion Resources and Structures 29 Staffing Needs 29 Data Conversion Expert 31 Computer Expert 32 Cartographic and Geographic Expert 33 Consultant and Conversion Vendor 33 Administrative Support Personnel 34 Digitizer 34 Hardware and Software 35 Determining Appropriate Equipment 35 Plotters 35 Data Manipulation Requirements 36 Budget 36 Up-front Funding 37 Budget Flexibility 37 Conversion Structures 38 Departments 38 Multi-participant GIS 39 Data Sharing Guidelines 44 Where to Look 45 Benefits and Challenges of Data Sharing 46 Conversion-Pilot 50 Limiting the Sample Area 50 Limiting Risk 51 Evaluating the Pilot!> 52 Conversion Philosophies 53 Incremental Conversion 53
4 Contents ix Blitzkrieg Conversion 57 References 60 Acknowledgments 6l Chapter 4: Project Planning and Management 63 Project Elements 64 Planning 66 Obtain Input and Support from Executives 66 Perform Needs Assessments of End Users 68 Establish Goals, Objectives, and Strategies 69 Test Project Feasibility 71 Prioritize 73 Prepare a Budget 74 Prepare a Time Line 74 Articulating the Plan...*. 74 Gathering Resources 75 Working Toward Milestones 75 Demonstrating Usability 76 Long-term Data Maintenance 79 Strategic Issues 80 Consultant versus In House 80 Choosing a Consultant 82 Traditional Procurement 84 New Procurement Options 88 Key Risk Areas 91 Change Control 91 _ Guarding Against "Foolproof Claims 92 Database Design Parameters 92 Data Quality 93 Cost and Schedule 94 Communication 94 User Acceptance 95 Data Maintenance 96 Management Support 96 Procedural Innovation 97 Mitigating Risk and Liability 97 Conclusion ": 98 Acknowledgments 98
5 GIS Data Conversion Chapter 5: Documenting a Data Conversion Effort 99 Benefits of Documentation 100 Creating Data Conversion Documentation 101 Keep It Simple 101 Make It Portable 101 Address Motivation 102 Provide as Much Detail as Possible, and Then Some 103 What to Include 103 Project Implementation Objectives and Priorities 103 Database Design 104 Data Conversion Plan and Procedures 107 Quality Control Plan and Procedures 108 Post-conversion Updates 110 New Stuff "Outside the Box" Ill A Final Thought about Documentation Ill Acknowledgments 112 SECTION 3: Understanding the Target System 113 Chapter 6: Understanding the Target System 115 Different Levels of GIS Use 115 Computer Networks 116 Network Operating Systems 118 Lantastic 118 UNIX Novell 118 Windows NT 119 The Internet 119 Network Security 120 Computer Operating Systems 121 UNIX 121 Disk Operating System (DOS) 121 Windows 122 Windows Windows NT Macintosh OS 123 Mainframes 124
6 Contents xi Web Browsers 124 Computer Hardware 126 Processors 126 Storage Devices 127 Input Devices 129 Output Devices 131 Network Connectivity Devices 132 GIS Software 132 Non-commercial GIS Software 132 Commercial GIS Software 132 Database Design 135 Design Elements, 136 Design Stages 137 Design Drivers 137 Summary 138 Acknowledgments 138 SECTION 4: GIS Data Sources 139 Chapter 7: Data Source Types and Preparation 141 Data Source Types 141 Existing Digital Sources 142 Existing Vector Data Sources 142 Existing Tabular Data Sources 144 Existing Raster Data Sources 145 Existing Hardcopy Data Sources 145 GIS Data Synthesis 151 Aerial Photography and Planimetric Data Compilation 151 Digital Orthophotography 152 FieldCapture of Data 153 COGO Input 153 Optimal Data Source Selection 154 Feature Quantities 155 Data Source Preparation for Entry into the GIS 156 Retrieval/Duplication of Data Sources 156 Freezing Source Updates 157 Scrubbing Data Sources 157
7 xu GIS Data Conversion Posting of Backlog 157 Cross-References, Conflict Resolution, and Cleansing Records 158 Source Document Inventory, Control, and Tracking 158 Acknowledgments 159 Chapter 8: Data Models, Collection Considerations, and Cartographic Issues 161 Raster versus Vector Data Representation Issues l6l Characteristics of Geographic Phenomena 162 Locational Precision 163 Speed of Analytical Processing and Computing 164 Data Storage 164 Data Issues 167 Data Collection in GIS 167 Primary Data Collection 167 Secondary Data Collection 170 Cartographic Data Issues 172 Geographic Information Content 172 Map Scale and Generalization 173 Graphic Representation of Spatial Features 176 Summary 178 Acknowledgments 178 Chapter 9: External Data Sources and Formats 179 Considerations When Using External Data 179 Examples of External GIS Data 184 Base Map Data 184 Thematic Data Sets 190 Elevation Data 192 Sources of External Data 194 Other Sources of Information 202 Acknowledgments 203 SECTION 5: Data Conversion/Input Methodologies 205 Chapter 10: Airborne Sensing Systems and Techniques 207 Data Types 207 Types of Photogrammetry 211
8 Contents xiii Map/Photo Scale 212 Resolution 214 Camera Technology 215 Digital Frame Cameras 216 Aerial Photography 217 Flight Conditions 222 Photo Control 224 Traditional Field Surveys 224 GPS Field Surveys and Aerotriangulation 225 Chapter 11: Producing GIS Data from Aerial Photos 229 Stereomapping 229 Planimetric Detail 233 Softcopy Mapping 234 Image Analysis." 237 Digital Orthophotography 238 Orthographic Projections 239 Digital Orthophoto Process 239 Orthophotos as Base Maps 243 3D Images 244 Design Issues 244 Project Planning Considerations 245 Chapter 12: Global Positioning Systems 251 Comparing GPS Data Acquisition to Other Methods 253 GPS Method of GIS Data Collection and Conversion 254 What Can Go Wrong? 255 Differential Correction 255 Data Conversion to GIS : 256 Other Applications 257 GPS Advantages and Disadvantages 257 Advantages 257 Disadvantages 258 The Future 258 Chapter 13: Scanning 259 Why GIS Data Are Different 259 Advantages of Vector Data 262 How Scanning Works 263
9 xiv GIS Data Conversion About Scanners 264 Image Quality 266 Digital versus Visual Output 266 Thresholding 267 Brightness and Contrast 268 Gamma Correction and Thresholding 271 Dynamic Thresholding 271 Throughput 272 Optimal Environment 273 Memory Guidelines 273 Resolution 274 Scan Heads 274 Optical versus Interpolated Resolution 275 Scale and Accuracy in Relation to Resolution 280 Scanning Accuracy 281 What Accuracy Is Required? 281 Accuracy and Source Documents 282 Scanner Accuracy 283 Map Preparation for Scanning 285 Vectorization 287 Intersections 290 Generalization 290 Intersections versus Generalization 291 Attributes 292 Vectorization Tricks of the Trade 292 Color Scanning '. 293 Color Scanner 294 Optical Character'Recognition 296 Good News About OCR : 296 Bad News About OCR 297 Data Storage 298 Making the Most of What You Have 299 Data Delivery 300 Summary 301 Acknowledgments 301 Chapter 14: Keyboard Entry of Attribute Data 303 Single Key Data Entry 305 Data Preparation Requirements 306
10 Contents xv Hardware/Software Requirements 307 Data Validation Considerations 307 Data Quality Control 308, Double Key Data Entry 310 Data Preparation Requirements 311 Hardware/Software Requirements 315 Chapter 15: Spatial Data Transfer Standards 319 General Characteristics 320 No Information Loss 320 Self-contained Transfers 321 Not Intended for Processing 322 Non-proprietary Format 323 Three Model Levels 323 Wide Spectrum of Spatial Data Models Supported 325 Feature Catalog ". 325 Files of the Transfer 326 Impact on the Data Consumer 327 Barriers to Spatial Data Exchange 327 Target System Must Support Data Set 328 Learning the Standard 329 Spatial Object Terms 331 Data Quality Report 332 Attributes 334 GIS Import Process 336 Automatic Conversion/Direct Import 336 Advanced Import Options 338 '" Format Converter Utilities 339 Viewing Utilities 340 An SDTS Import Example Using ARC/INFO 342 Troubleshooting 349 Diagnosing the Problem 349 Common Problems 349 Where to Find Help 352 Suggested Places for Help 352 Acknowledgments 353 References -;._. 353
11 xvi GIS Data Conversion SECTION 6: Quality Control/Quality Assurance 355 Chapter 16: Quality Control/Quality Assurance 357 Attribute versus Graphic Quality' 358 Attribute Accuracy 358 What About the Data Source? 359 Spatial Accuracy 360 Quality Control versus Quality Assurance 362 Quality Control Definition and Philosophy 362 Data Acceptance Criteria 368 Define Criteria for Measuring Quality 369 Establish Procedures for Quality 372 What Types of Checks When? 372 Define Detailed Quality Control/Quality Assurance Procedures 374 Documentation of Quality 374 Quality Control/Quality Assurance Log Forms 375 Automated Reports and Logs 375 Problem Resolution 376 Managing Quality Risks 379 Documentation of Quality Requirements 379 Set Your Sights 380 Providing Adequate Resources 380 Resolve the Quality versus Schedule/Budget Conflict 381 Appendix A: Glossary 383 Appendix B: Contributors 393 Index 397
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