NETWORK CITIES: OPERATIONALISING A STRONG BUT CONFUSING CONCEPT

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1 W20 Spatial planning and governance at the regional level NETWORK CITIES: OPERATIONALISING A STRONG BUT CONFUSING CONCEPT Ina Klaasen i.t.klaasen@tudelft.nl Remon Rooij r.m.rooij@tudelft.nl Jeroen van Schaick j.vanschaick@tudelft.nl

2 NETWORK CITIES: Operationalising a Strong but Confusing Concept Ina Klaasen Chair of Spatial Planning Faculty of Architecture Delft University of Technology i.t.klaasen@tudelft.nl Remon Rooij Chair of Spatial Planning Faculty of Architecture Delft University of Technology r.m.rooij@tudelft.nl Jeroen van Schaick Chair of Spatial Planning Faculty of Architecture Delft University of Technology j.vanschaick@tudelft.nl Keywords: network city; urban networks; mobility; mobility chains; temporal-spatial activity patterns; zoning; user base; spatial planning; New Charter of Athens Abstract: Network Cities has for the past decade been the theme and title of the research program of the Chair of Spatial Planning at the Faculty of Architecture of Delft University of Technology. At the turn of the century the notion urban networks became one of the central notions in Dutch urban planning policy. A number of definitions and connotations have been attached to this concept urban networks, that, by the way, was briefly called network city. In this paper we will try to create some order in this conceptual chaos of urban networks, networks of cities, multi-nodal regions, network city, etc., focusing on what we consider to be the relevant interpretation of the concept Network City for urban design and planning. We will explain that this concept is not a ready-made format to be applied in spatial planning, but rather a new way of thinking about urban developments. In order to operationalise the concept we will refer to past and present network thinkers like Dupuy, Barabási and Salingaros. Introduction The notion networks found its way into the Dutch spatial planning system in the 1990s. At first in the form of the strategy of the two networks. In this regional planning approach, sustainable spatial developments would be structured by on the one hand the blue network - i.e. the ecological water network, both at the surface and underground and, on the other W-20 Spatial Planning and Governance at the Regional Level 1

3 hand, the infrastructural network. Network City as such (netwerkstad) briefly appeared in Dutch planning policy just before we entered the 21 st century (Min.VROM:De Ruimte van Nederland: Startnota Ruimtelijke Ordening, 1999), but was soon replaced by the concept urban networks (stedelijke netwerken) (Min.VROM: Vijfde Nota voor de Ruimtelijke Ordening (Fifth National Policy Document on Spatial Planning, 2001; Nota Ruimte, 2006). Networks consist of nodes and links. However, in the context of spatial planning networks, nodes and links are approached in very different and even confusing ways. Moreover, the concept network city - also network cities, urban networks, polynuclear urban systems, etc. - emerges as political concept, empirical concept, theoretical model, metaphor and in numerous other ways. In this paper we will try to create some order in this conceptual chaos, focusing on what we consider to be the relevant interpretation of the concept network city for urban design and planning. Networks: Divergence of Meaning The Dutch Fifth National Policy Document on Spatial Planning (2001) focuses at so-called urban networks, in the sense of networks of cities (see ). Urban networks are defined here as strongly urbanised zones that consist of a network of larger and smaller compact cities that each have an own character and profile within this network The main political aim is to manage the processes of the urban networks in such a way that the urbanised areas grow into a number of highly connected, yet clearly distinguishable urban nodes, with open spaces in between. The notion network refers to physical networks, rail and road infrastructure, and ICT infrastructure. Basically an urban network is an urban system, implying that the internal relations between more or less evenly matched cities are stronger than their external relations. As Hugo Priemus put it (2006) the Dutch concept of urban networks, in which cities cooperate instead of competing with each other or ignoring each other. A functionally complementary development within an urban network is thus indicated. An important force behind this idea of networks of cities is the economic goal of wanting Dutch regions to play their part in a globalising economy. The underlying notion network is ambivalent, however. Implicitly it refers to the fact that a fruitful urban network policy needs stakeholders and municipal and regional institutions and therefore people - to work closely together, forming networks in the sociological sense. Another approach for that reason to networks in spatial planning as part or at least an effect of the network concept - is to see urban networks as an administrative concept. On the Internet, for instance, one finds numerous references to the administrative cooperation in the urban region Twente, when one types in Netwerkstad Twente. This approach to urban network is related to the governance-debate (see for instance Teisman, 2006). In the domain of urban design and planning a fairly abstract (and fashionable) term like urban networks invites a lot of additional interpretations. In a recent issue of Stedebouw & Ruimtelijke Ordening one can find for instance: Lately there is a lot of talk of network cities, a notion that indicates the growing complexity of urban processes and that the validity of plans becomes less and less predictable and testable. (Blank, De Bont, Van Douwen & Van Hees, 2006) and also Notions like network city, polynuclear urban field ( ) show the territorial awkwardness of getting a grip on network complexity. ; followed by A more fitting idea of the network city should start, however, from city fragments, city districts, W-20 Spatial Planning and Governance at the Regional Level 2

4 theme s or elements, in an ever changing linkage of dispersed activities through physical and virtual networks. (Sanders & Boelens, 2006). Browsing on the Internet produces cartloads of examples of people who take up the notions network city and urban network. From the city as network of activities to designs for houses and other buildings that will strengthen urban networks. Network city and urban network are obviously planning concepts as elaborated by Wil Zonneveld (1987). As such they are the successors of concepts like urban region (stadsgewest), concentrated deconcentration, from earlier National Policy Documents on Spatial Planning; concepts that are all based on the necessity of regional coherent spatial development policies and therefore stimulating regional collaboration - using financial incentives. Planning concepts though, do not necessarily correspond with theoretical and empirically validated spatial concepts. This leads to questions like the following. Are polynuclear regions, in the Netherlands and elsewhere, already functioning as one urban system, or even in the process of getting there? Is functional complementarity of cities a realistic goal or is it better described as wishful thinking? Has the planning task we are faced with really changed some time around the millennium; for instance by the growing importance of information and communications technology? What can and should be the empirical content of an urban networks approach to spatial planning? Questions like these seem fundamental to us, working at a university of technology and thus working from a practical-scientific perspective. The above-mentioned questions have in the past decade been the theme of research projects under the auspices of the Chair of Spatial Planning. From 1997 on Network Cities as been the theme and title of the Chair s research program. The content of the concept network city as developed within this program differs substantially from that of the planning concept urban networks as used in official planning policies. The concept network city is not a ready-made format to be applied in spatial planning. As Paul Drewe put it, it is rather a matter of network thinking in urbanism (Drewe, 2005). As the ideas about network cities can not be detached from the development of the notion network in spatial planning, before we present our views on network cities, we will first give a short overview of network thinking in the past and the present that has influenced our research. Past and present network thinking Networks in the sense of infrastructural networks, on all kinds of levels of scale, are as old as mankind. Urban networks in general are nothing new either. The models in Figure 1 for instance, by Peter Haggett, date from 1965 and are used as an illustration in Time-sharing Urbanism (Dean & Trummer, 2000). Zef Hemel brings to attention de economicgeografically coloured studies of the network of cities around the Mediterranean during the reign of the Spanish king Philip II, by the French historian Fernand Braudel, and that of the urban network of the Netherlands in the 17 th century, by Jan de Vries and Ad van der Woude (Hemel, 2001). Through time the physical forms of the spatial networks have of course changed, in line with technological developments - the trend being that they grew more and more complex and that they led to shorter transportation times and so to the enlargement of the scales of common societal processes. W-20 Spatial Planning and Governance at the Regional Level 3

5 Figure 1 Elements of spatial networks by Haggett. Source: Dean & Trummer, 2000 (original source not given) The notion network city is based on a study by Gabriel Dupuy of classical network thinkers (Drewe, 2005). Dupuy characterized networks by three principal criteria: Topology, Kinetics and Adaptation. These can be clarified as follows (Drewe, 2002): - Topological criterion: topology refers to the geometric or physical configuration of a network, the way in which the nodes of a network are physically connected. Networks are not abstract entities, they are related to the spatial dimension by connecting links via nodes in space. This involves discontinuity and heterogeneity. The topology of a network is open and united, and it is opposed to separations such as city/countryside, centre/periphery and zoning. - Kinetic criterion: kinetics pertains to movement and communication between nodes. It is basically a relationship between space and time: speed. The rapidity of the connections within a network is a measure of the quality of the network itself. So, instantaneousness, homogeneity of speeds, the interest for rapid transfers and transits without losses of time or interruptions makes the network apt to movement and defines the kinetic criterion. - Adaptive criterion: adaptability concerns the capacity for the evolution of networks over time and space. From the one side a network should be able to modify its structure to welcome new systems or to extend the applications of existing ones. On the other side, it should adapt itself to the needs and desires of its users by offering a multiple choice for the reaching of goals. Using these criteria Dupuy constructed the table of Figure 2. W-20 Spatial Planning and Governance at the Regional Level 4

6 Figure 2 Network thinking in urban planning since the industrial revolution. The column to the left contains the names of relevant network thinkers. The headings of the three columns to the right are explained in the text of this paper. Source of this Figure: Drewe, Gabriel Dupuy s summarised his theory of network cities in the model presented as Figure 3. The layered character of this model must be understood from bottom to top as a set of levels, on every layer focusing on the urban system seen from a different perspective defined by what Dupuy calls operators la ville des operateurs des reseaux. Thus the model Dupuy puts forward, the Network City, can actually be regarded as a set of perspectives to understand the workings of the social-technical, temporo-spatial, urban system as a whole (Van Schaick, 2006). Figure 3 Interpretation of the Ville de Reseaux (Network City) by Dupuy (1991) Theoretical and real urban models based on infrastructure, called functional-spatial structure models, have been part of an urban design research program at the Faculty of Architecture from half way the 1980s. In this approach to urban and regional design, rail and road infrastructure are considered to be the carriers of urban systems. Limited zones, W-20 Spatial Planning and Governance at the Regional Level 5

7 respectively along (road) connections and around nodes, are the designated locations for collective urban functions. Together with the connections and nodes themselves these functions form the hierarchically ordered skeleton of urban regions and urbanised zone - the flesh being the residential areas and other urban functions that can be considered noncollective (Klaasen & Radema, 1985). Two categories of urban principles were distinguished: mono-nodal and multi-nodal (or polynuclear) ones, called network models. Figure 4 shows an illustration of this approach using a mono-nodal structure principle, critiquing a then actual spatial development plan in the Amsterdam region. Figures 5 and 6 show other examples of this approach. Figure 4 An illustration of the urban planning approach based on functionalspatial structure principles: to the left the then official expansion plan for the western part of Amsterdam that turned the open space between the two western lobes into a kind of Central Park, and to the right the proposed alternative that left the open space remain a wedge between the two extended lobes. Source: Radema & Klaasen, Figure 5 Principle-model for the central zone of a regional centre: high concentration of facilities combined with intensive employment and dwelling opportunities around the train/regional bus station and along the (radial) main routes. Declining density in the peripheral centre areas. The mixing of collective functions with the dwelling function is an outcome of the wish to create conditions for public safety. Source: Klaasen 2004: 89 Figure 6 An example of visualising travel time by indicative isochrons. A spatial model for a planned eastwards development of Amsterdam in the IJsselmeer (lake): accessibility isochrons of pretransport for prospective rail link. Source: Klaasen 2004: 89 Recent influential network-directed research has been done by Barabási and Watts on network theory in general and by Salingaros on urban structures. The physicist Barabási (2002) studied rules of hierarchy in complex networks. He shows that good functioning complex networks are in fact so called scale-free networks, in which the power law rules (Fig.7). A power law distribution predicts that most nodes have only a few links, held together by a few highly connected nodes, so called hubs. Barabási discusses that the power law distribution forces us to abandon the idea of scale, or a characteristic node. The largest (best connected) node is W-20 Spatial Planning and Governance at the Regional Level 6

8 closely followed by two or three somewhat smaller hubs, followed by dozens that are even smaller, and so on, eventually arriving at the numerous tiny nodes. There is no intrinsic scale in these kinds of networks. This is why these networks are referred to as scale-free. Furthermore, he argues that the scale-free topology is a natural consequence of the ever expanding nature of real networks. Starting from two connecting nodes (Fig.8), in each panel a new node (shown as an empty circle) is added to the network. When deciding where to link, new nodes prefer to attach to the more connected nodes (the rich-get-richer concept). Thanks to growth and preferential attachment, a few highly connected hubs emerge. But there is more. In a competitive environment, new nodes with a high level of fitness attract links easier than nodes without this fitness. So, preferential attachment is driven by both fitness and connectivity. Between two nodes with the same number of links, the fitter one acquires links more quickly. And if two nodes have the same fitness, the older one still has an advantage (the fit-get-richer concept). Figure 7 Power-law distribution that shows that good functioning, vital complex networks have no intrinsic scale (source: Barabasi, 2002: 71) Figure 8 The birth of a scale-free network. The scalefree topology is a natural consequence of the everexpanding nature of real networks. Starting from two connected nodes (top left), in each panel a new node (shown as an empty circle) is added to the network. When deciding where to link, new nodes prefer to attach to the mere connected nodes. Thanks to growth and preferential attachment, a few highly connected hubs emerge. (source: Barabasi, 2002: 87) Where Albert-László Barabási studied networks in general, the development of the Internet being highly stimulating, the mathematician Nikos Salingaros focuses on architecture and urban design and planning. Interaction between the different elements of the urban fabric - streets, shops, houses, offices, green areas, pedestrian zones, etc. - increases the possibilities of the vitality, the success of cities, according to Salingaros. For the larger part, the vitality of the city depends on the geometry of the city; that is the connections, the network. The processes that generate the urban web can be summarised in terms of three principles, and may be written as follows (Salingaros, 2005): W-20 Spatial Planning and Governance at the Regional Level 7

9 - Human activity nodes. The urban web is anchored at nodes of human activities (activity places) whose connections make up the urban web. There exist distinct types of nodes: home, work, church, museum, restaurant, etc. - Connections. Infrastructure and/or public space can link nodes of activities. Empirical observations verify that the stronger the connections, and the more substructure the web has, the more life a city has. Too many connections that coincide overload the channel's capacity, which on its turn may result in non-vital deconcentration. - Hierarchy. A hierarchy rarely can be established at once. When allowed to do so, the urban web self-organises by creating an ordered hierarchy of connections on several different levels of scale. It becomes multiply connected but not chaotic. The organisation process follows a strict order starting from the smallest scales, progressing up to the higher scales. If any connective level is missing, the web is pathological. This short overview of influencing lines of thought illustrates our common view that knowledge regarding networks, complex systems and other spatial design and planning themes, generated in other scientific domains than that of urban design and planning can be very relevant. This knowledge needs of course to be translated in the right reserch questions and hypotheses for our own domain. The concept network city as an approach to urban design and planning As said before the concept network city is not a ready-made format to be applied in the usual way of spatial planning. In the words of Paul Drewe, who as Chairholder Spatial Planning initiated this research program: it is rather a matter of network thinking in urbanism (Drewe, 2005). The program started with focusing on the emergence of again a new kind of physical network, i.e. that of ICT, as this new kind of infrastructure didn t seem to have any impact on Dutch urban planning and design policies. Since its initial focus on the implications of ICTs for spatial planning the research program has shifted its attention to the theory and practice of spatial planning in the context of complex interaction of multiple urban networks, including the introduction of new technologies. Central in the Network City approach is the interrelationship between physical networks, functional ones and those of the users of the physical and functional networks (see Figure 3). This implies a design and planning approach strongly strongly related to societal urban processes in other words the users - and the spatial accommodation of these processes. Instead of primarily focusing on the static pattern of physical networks the emphasis moves towards the dynamics of other urban networks. Basically one could say that it is not longer about being some where but about getting there ; design and planning is not about places but about places in connecting with routes. The operationalisation of this approach involves - A different way of looking at time ; traditionally time comes into urban design and planning in the form of the amount of time it takes to implement proposed spatial interventions, to indicate how in the course of time a built environment has changed - in other words in the form of linear processes with a relatively large temporal grain. Societal processes on the other hand (daily and weekly rhythms) are in the first place characterised by their cyclic character and by their small temporal grain (Klaasen, 2004: 67 ff.). W-20 Spatial Planning and Governance at the Regional Level 8

10 - A different way of looking at zoning ; the mainstream zonal urbanism of the Athens Charter of 1933 tends to ignore temporal-spatial activity patterns (Drewe, 2002). Taking into account which temporal-spatial activity patterns one wants to accommodate leads to a different way of zoning (see for an example Figure 9). - Emphasising the importance of (a hierarchy in) spatial levels of scale, in particular the way they are interconnected. The complexity of mobility chains means that transportation involves different levels of scale combined with different types of transportation. Figure 9 Around the primary station, the spatial conditions have been created for regional functions with a collective transport profile. Around the secondary stations, the spatial conditions have been created for regional functions that have a combined collective/private transport profile. In the zone along the secondary access route, a motorway, functions can be located with a private (i.e. car) transport profile (Klaasen, 2004: 149). Important notions in this network approach accordingly are temporal-spatial activity patterns (Klaasen, 2004), mobility and mobility chains (Rooij, 2005), nodes, hierarchy and user bases. Of some existing notions in traditional design and planning the meaning changes: residential environment, for instance, usually refers to dwelling type and housing density, while in the network approach it refers to the type of spatial activity which can unfold (Klaasen, 2004: 80 ff.). To conclude We consider network thinking and theory a necessary component of urban design and planning. Cities and metropoles grow in a variety of complex and dynamic ways, and urban areas (from central to periphery) face changing positions in the urbanising and 'globalising' regions. The actual middle and long terms effects of new technologies are sources of great uncertainty, as are the societal developments in relation to demands of space and necessary conditions to support a variety of growing urban population needs: new ways of living, working, shopping, learning and recreation, also new ways of production and transport, not to forget vital living conditions of life, such as safe shelter, clean water and healthy food. The network city approach furthermore, can be considered to be in line with the so-called New Charter of Athens, published by The European Council of Town Planners (2003). This Charter states the Council s vision on the future of European cities, formulating that the city of the future is the Connected City. A city comprised of a variety of connective mechanisms acting on different scales. These include tactile and visual connection to the built environment, as well as connections between a diversity of urban functions, infrastructure networks, and information and communication W-20 Spatial Planning and Governance at the Regional Level 9

11 technologies. Social connectivity, economic connectivity and environmental connectivity are presented as the attributes for successful cities. (ibid.). The authors are responsible for the translation of Dutch citations. references Barabási, A.L., 2002, Linked: The New Science of Networks, Perseus, Cambridge (UK) Blank, Hilde, De Bont, Ad, Van Douwen, Hansje & Van Hees, Judith, 2006, De stedebouwkundige als waakhond, S & RO nr 04, pp Dean, Penelope & Trummer, Peter, 2000, Time-sharing urbanism/ Stedenbouw door time-sharing, OASE # 53, pp Drewe, Paul, 2002, ICT and Urban Form, Old Dogma, New Tricks, an essay, TU Delft, Delft Drewe, Paul, 2005, Time in Urban Planning and Design in the ICT Age, in Shifting Sense in Spatial Planning, Series Design/Science/Planning, Techne Press, Amsterdam Dupuy, Gabriel, 1991, L urbanisme des Reseaux Theories et Méthodes, Armand Colin, Éditeur, Paris European Council of Town Planners 2003, The New Charter of Athens 2003, The European Council of Town Planners Vision for Cities in the 21 st Century, Lisbon, Hemel, Zef, 2001 Nieuwe vormen van complementariteit binnen stedelijke netwerken, VROM/Forum: Advies ten behoeve van de Vijfde Nota over de Ruimtelijke Ordening deel May 2007 Klaasen, I.T., 2004, Knowledge-based Design: Developing Urban and Regional Design into a Science, Series Design/Science/Planning, Delft University Press, Delft / Techne Press, Amsterdam Klaasen, Ina & Radema, Beeno, 1985, Ruimtelijke struktuurmodellen: een aanpak voor stedelijke en regionale struktuurplanning, in Planologische Diskussiebijdragen 1985; pp , Delftse Uitgeversmij, Delft Ministerie van Volkshuisvesting, Ruimtelijke Ordening en Milieubeheer 1999, De Ruimte van Nederland: Startnota Ruimtelijke Ordening, Den Haag Ministerie van Volkshuisvesting, Ruimtelijke Ordening en Milieubeheer 2001, Vijfde Nota voor de Ruimtelijke Ordening (Fifth National Policy Document on Spatial Planning), Den Haag Ministerie van Volkshuisvesting, Ruimtelijke Ordening en Milieubeheer 2006, Nota Ruimte (National Spatial Policy Document), Den Haag Priemus, H De ondernemende gemeente: grondslagen voor decentraal ruimtelijk- economisch beleid, Building business, 8(4), Radema, Beeno & Klaasen, Ina, 1987, Struktuurkonsepten als basis voor ruimtelijke ordening en infrastruktuurplanning, in Planologische Diskussiebijdragen 1987, Delftse Uitgeversmij, Delft Rooij, Remon, 2005, The Mobile City. The planning and design of the Network City from a mobility point of view, PhD Thesis, Trail Thesis Series, Trail, Delft Salingaros, Nikos, 2005, Principles of Urban Structure, Series Design/Science/Planning, Delft University Press, Delft / Techne Press, Amsterdam Sanders, Wies & Boelens, Luuk, 2006, Netwerkgerichte stedenbouw, S & RO nr. 04, pp Teisman, G.R. 2006, Van stad naar regio, NIROV, Den Haag: - May 2007 Van Schaick, J., 2006, Crossing the Times of Urban Space - manipulating temporal characteristics of relations in the network city, in Designing the Urban - Technogenesis and the Urban image, 010 Publishers, Rotterdam Zonneveld, W., 1987, Conceptualisatie in de ruimtelijke ordening, PhD Thesis, Planologisch en Demografisch Instituut, Amsterdam W-20 Spatial Planning and Governance at the Regional Level 10

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