THE CARTOGRAPHIC RESEARCH METHOD IN THE LIGHT OF THE LINGUISTIC CONCEPT OF THE MAP LANGUAGE

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1 THE CARTOGRAPHIC RESEARCH METHOD IN THE LIGHT OF THE LINGUISTIC CONCEPT OF THE MAP LANGUAGE Pavel Neytchev, D. Sc. University of Gdansk, Cartographic Laboratory POLAND, Gdansk, R. Dmowskiego str., 16 A Phone: ( ) , Fax: ( ) neytchev@univ.gda.pl Abstract: The application of maps for the description, analysis and scientific recognition of the phenomena is referred to as the cartographic research method. According to the linguistic concept of the map language, an image of a map constitutes communiqué and that is a set of thematically related cartographic statements. In the set of the semantic contents of those statements a mental model of a fragment of the reality is hidden. A user of a map (a recipient of the information) with the aid of the map language perceives the cartographic statements and reconstructs, in his own mind, a transmitted mental model of a fragment of the reality. The relations which occur between the objects and the phenomena as well as their qualitative-quantitative characteristics depicted in a mental model and the recipient s knowledgebase and his demand enable him further research of a fragment of the reality. 1. INTELLECTUAL EFFORT A substance, which is conceived in a mind and is also ed and stored there, is referred to as a psychic (mental) substance. The science hasn t been capable of defining satisfactorily what the psychic substance actually is so far. The memory trace and that is an engram has become a hypothetical unit of storing the previously received sensations or the reactions of human senses to the scientists engaged in those matters. What the nature of this trace depends on is not clear yet and a dispute over this subject has been continued to this day. (acc. to I. Kurcz 1992) Information is defined as a factor diminishing the level of ignorance of a given object, environment or phenomenon. It constitutes a set of sensations arose in the result of reacting to the stimuli appearing from the surrounding environment. On the basis of the aforementioned set the environment becomes recognized better by the person experiencing these sensations. Since the spot of the conception and, at times, the ing of this set of sensations is the mind itself, it can be said, that the information constitutes a psychical substance organized in a certain manner. The set of the sensations itself is often referred to as a mental image. It may be more or less complicated depending on the quantity or the sort of the information which it represents. The activities that our mind performs are as follows: perceiving, remembering, reasoning. Perceiving consists in receiving information coming from the outer world. Remembering, on the other hand, makes it possible to store and reproduce the ed and uned information. Reasoning is a chain of mental operations, with the help of which, information encrypted in observations, images or concepts is ed. Observations - are created during the affection of stimuli of the surroundings onto the human s sensual receptors. Images may occur as: - reconstructive - mental images of the formerly perceived objects, - productive - the images of the objects and phenomena unperceived formerly. Concepts, as far as they are concerned, can be divided into: - matrix concepts - cognitive representations of a finite number of common features which to an equal degree are ascribed to all the designates of a given class, - natural concepts - cognitive representations, reflecting groups of common features which to a different degree are ascribed to the designates of a given class. Owing to reasoning an individual formulates assessments and conclusions, he understands reality better, makes discoveries, creates plans and projects. It must be emphasized, that reasoning is strictly related with perceiving and remembering.

2 Three rudimentary components of the structure of the reasoning activity can be discriminated: 1) information about the world that are the material to think about; 2) operations, and these are the basic mental transformations (primary: analysis and synthesis and derivative: comparison, exclusion and generalization) with the help of which the reasoning material is ed; 3) the principles ( methods, tactics, strategies) by this one understands that what influences the giving order to the consecutive operations. Depending on what information is ed during the activity of reasoning, we can discriminate between two sorts of thinking: sensual-motor reasoning, also referred to as concrete thinking. In this particular sort of thinking a major role is served by observations which provide information about the actual situation. Owing to this kind of thinking people solve practical tasks; conceptual reasoning, also referred to as abstract-conceptual. During the of thinking an individual utilizes concepts which are often very abstract. In the incipient phases of the conceptual thinking a major role can be played by images. Any mature individual reasons primarily with the aid of concepts. Creating a new theory of elementary particles, solving an algebraic task or a new philosophical reflection are just a few examples of the conceptual reasoning. The meaning of those types of thinking is dependant not only on the phases of human s development but on the intercultural differences also. (acc. to J. Kozielecki 1992) 2. A GENERAL PROCESS OF THE CONCEPTION AND THE TRANSMISSION OF INFORMATION AMONGST PEOPLE People not having a possibility of an direct transmission of a mental substance (their thoughts) amongst themselves have learned to utilize a physical notion for that purpose (Figure 1). Broadly speaking, the said notion, is referred to as a connection channel. It is utilized in two ways. In the first case the sender organizes a material substance of a connection channel in such a way that the attained creation would be of a closest resemblance to a mental image, e.g. a painting of an artist. In the other case a material substance of a connection channel is organized into a set of signs of a given code, with the help of which a description of a mental image is depicted. Thus, the mental image appears in an encrypted form. The signs are treated as notions of the mental substance and the code is understood as a system of signs serving the means of communication. The codes can either be natural or artificial. The natural codes are a biological equipment of different species of animals and they serve the means of inner- and inter-species communication. All the human societies created and improved natural codes on their way of evolution too, with the help of which they communicate well. These are so called natural (ethnical) languages. Artificial codes, on the other hand, are exclusively a human creation and they serve both the means of interpersonal communication and his communication with inanimate information ing systems, such as computers. The natural codes can only be discovered and researched on. The artificial codes can be created in an infinite number. (acc. to I. Kurcz 1992) A simple and a compound is yet another form of a division of codes. The simple (directly defined) code is a group of signs as material objects and meanings corresponding to these. This means that this code includes two components of each code: the material structure (physical form) of signs and their meanings (semantics). So defined code is perceived as a single-articulated. When to these two components of code is added a third - syntax, then such a code will prove to be able to produce new signs in infinite numbers. It becomes a compound (complicatedly defined) code. That code also contains two kinds of formal units with different functions, i.e., units which have meaning (signifying units) and units which distinguish meaning (distinctive units). However, there is a difference between these two kinds of codes. The minimal signifying units of the compound code can be decomposed into distinctive units. So defined code is perceived as a double-articulated. The structure of all of natural human languages shows a surprising similarity. It is so, since it is based on a certain, common for all people, stereotype of human mind operation. Every one of the ethnic (natural) languages consists of two classes of system signs. One of them is a finite set of elementary signs called the vocabulary (lexicon) of a given language. The other is an infinite set of combined signs, created on the basis of the basic signs. First class of system signs - the vocabulary - contains two kinds of formal units. The words with their meanings are signifying units. The letters of alphabet (so-called elementary forms ) with their vocal or graphical substance are distinctive units. Second class of system signs - the infinite set of sentences - also contains two kinds of formal units. In this case syntactic rules of natural language enable to join words (elementary signs) in sentences, producing in this way combined signs. Each

3 separate sentence expresses a judgment. This means that its semantic contents are different from the simple sum of the meanings of its individual elementary signs. It can be said that combined signs are signifying units. From this point of view, the elementary signs can be perceived as distinctive units and the natural language as a double-articulated code. The double articulation is treated by linguists as a specific feature of natural human languages. The stimuli of the surroundings A of direct affection of material substance of the surroundings onto human senses. The information conception The information The communiqué (the painting) preparation sensual receptors sensual-motor reasoning observations information included in the observations conceptual reasoning + a tool for merging psychic substance with material substance motor system SENDER The analysis of material substance of the surroundings together with a of organizing psychic substance created in the mind of a sender a mental image of the surroundings A of an appropriate organizing of mental image s psychic substance in order to amalgamate it with the physical carrier s material substance transmission The information reception The of creating and making the communiqué (the painting) available The communiqué (the painting) reception Connection channel (a language communiqué, artist s painting) sensual receptors sensual-motor reasoning conceptual reasoning + a tool for disconnecting psychical substance from material substance observations attained derivatively the received information RECIPIENT A of sustaining the mental image s psychical substance and the physical carrier s material substance in a merged state. The analysis of material substance of the communiqué together with the of the extraction of the transmitted mental image s psychical substance. A of organizing recipient s psychical substance correspondingly to the received pattern creating in his mind an acquired mental image of the surroundings Figure 1. A scheme of conception and transmission of information between people. Apart from those two classes of sign systems one might well look out for a third one which may be defined as an infinite set of complementary signs. A complementary sign is a textual composition, and that is a group of sentences adequately arranged, joined by a common leading theme. The meaning of a textual composition is not a simple sum of the sentences assembled, but it results from the applied stylistic rules and may be treated as a certain semantic unity.

4 . A conclusion can be drawn form the foregoing text, that in order to recognize a given code as a double-articulated code (regardless of it is artificial or natural) one should look out for a mechanism within a code, that would make it possible to create an infinite set of combined signs from a finite set of elementary signs. In other words it would be a mechanism bearing the features of a syntactic component. One can, therefore, characterize such a code using an expression language. As it was presented above, information that is transmitted between people constitutes a mental substance that is equal to certain observations. Broadly speaking, one can speak of a certain mental image. Therefore, with an aid of a textual composition (an amalgamated sign) an entire mental image is transmitted, with the assistance of a separate sentence (combined sign) - its fragment and with the help of a separate word (an elementary sign) - an image of a single element. Hence, a certain hierarchy of the units taking part in the communication comes out from depending on the participation that they serve in that and on the capacity and the sort of transmitted semantic contents: - a n e l e m e n t o f a c o m m u n i c a t i o n a l u n i t - a semantic content composing a separate commonly accepted basic concept is transmitted; - a c o m m u n i c a t i o n a l u n i t - a singular predicate (judgment) is transmitted; - a s e t o f t h e m a t i c a l l y i n t e r r e l a t e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n a l u n i t s a set of predicates, merged in a thematic unity, is transmitted. A concept of a language is realized in three different aspects: - of a system - a language is a system in respect of a set of the formal-functional units existing within it opposing to each other on a scope-content basis and in this way mutually determining one another within the range of the whole, - of an act of a speech - the application of the language occurs in a given social circumstance and constitutes a certain organized whole, originating from an inception and conclusion and an inner structure, - of a text- a language is a text in the sense of a linear sequence of linguistic units created in the of communicating (speaking-understanding), based on a certain relational combination of those units. The table (Figure 2) depicts a division of linguistic units appearing in the aforesaid aspects in accordance with the functions presented above. The units of a natural language in a system an elementary sign a combined sign an amalgamated sign in a text a word a sentence a textual composition (a literary composition) in the activity of speaking a component of statement a statement a set of statements The function of a linguistic unit in a communicational a component of a communicational unit a communicational unit a set of communicational units (a communiqué) in the activity of the map language usage an element of statement statement a set of cartographic statements The units of the map language in a text word ( sign located in the legend of a map) sentence ( sign or a set of cartographic signs located on the surface exposing the image of a map) composition ( a map, communiqué) in a system an elementary cartographic sign a combined cartographic sign an amalgamated cartographic sign Figure 2. A resemblance occurring between units of a natural language and a map language.

5 The linguists state that the smallest linguistic unit which constitutes a connection channel in the of transmitting information is a statement. A s t a t e m e n t is understood as a concrete act of the usage of language for the communicational purpose. It is expressed with the help of a s e n t e n c e which simultaneously is its material realization (verbal or written) and a realization of an act of speaking as well. The act of speaking expresses intentions of the person speaking. It is the very motivation lying at the foundations of a given statement. Uttering a sentence, a speaking person, directs his statement to somebody and he does it for some or other reason. 3. MAP CREATING PROCESS IN THE LIGHT OF A GENERAL PROCESS OF THE CONCEPTION AND THE TRANSMISSION OF INFORMATION AMONGST PEOPLE In order to transfer certain information on the surrounding geographical environment one must perform the transmission of information about spatial location of its elements. In that respect, natural languages appear to be tools of a scarce handiness. Attempting to convey a mental image of that kind, utilizing only the set of traditional basic signs (lexicon) of a given language, the sender of information creates a very long and complex communiqué in the form of uttered or written text. In order to find means of editing a short, more clear communiqué and, at the same time one of an increased content copiousness, ideographic signs were reached for the appreciation of their independence of a spoken form of language. The conventional ideographic signs and special logical-mathematical rules enable to live up to this task in a greater degree. Thus writing was born. The signs of the cartographic writing, the so called cartographic signs are characterized by a thrifty graphic (or plastic) expression, albeit with a large semantic potential. A communiqué fixed with the help of the cartographic writing may be defined as a map. Its perception, in an uncomplicated and at the same time unambiguous way, enables the transfer of information about the surrounding geographic environment between an author of a map and its user. Attempting to answer the question in what way a map transmits information about the surrounding reality to its users, one must do, in the first place, ask a question: What the image of a map really is? The intricacy of the answer will result from a point of view. Actually, one can promptly reply that it is a construction of graphic (or plastic) elements drew up on a flat surface. This construction, however, does not constitute a model in the sense of a material (physically perceptible) model. Until we don t learn the meaning of particular elements of this construction the image of a map will remain a meaningless puzzle of lines, geometric figures, tinted spots and letters of a different size. As soon as we realize the meaning of particular constructional elements the image of a map will become a mathematical-semantic construction to us, since the semantic contents is included within the shape, size and the location of graphic (or plastic) elements on a flat surface. Thereby, it can be stated that the image of a map contains certain information in an encrypted form. On the other hand, it is a construction of structurally related elements, since structural links exist between the constructional graphic elements. It signifies that some constructional elements, characterized by a certain defined psychical content, may amalgamate into superior constructional elements. The psychical content of the superior constructional elements results from the applied connectional relations, yet it is derivative of the psychical content of the initial elements. Structural relations between the constructional elements of the image of a map are defined by the existence of simple and compound semantic connections. Simple connections emerge during the assignation of psychical content to the elementary constructional graphic elements. In other words, they emerge at the very time of the assignation of meaning to the cartographic signs, and that is during the of creating the legend of a map. Compound relations, as far as they are concerned, are expressed in the emergence of psychical content representing certain predicates in the result of transforming the psychical content of the elementary graphic elements at the very moment of recognizing them as the superior constructional elements. If, for instance, the cartographic signs specified in the legend of a map are located on the surface of a map, in accordance with the mathematical-geometric relations of the accepted map projection, they become the superior constructional elements. Also, if the cartographic signs, already located on the surface of a map are merged into a semantic unity on the basis of logical reasoning they become the superior constructional elements as well. Eventually, all the superior constructional elements are ultimately amalgamated, with respect to editorial requirements, into a constructional unity in the form of an integral, thematically determined image of a map.

6 To the people familiar with the principles of the structural relations (in this case - the semantic, the mathematic and the editorial), a psychical substance, included in the image of a map, will bring about, in their minds, a creation of a spatially measurable and thematically determined mental model of a fragment of the geographic reality. This model will be thematically determined by reason of the applied simple and compound semantic connections. Simultaneously, this model will be spatially measurable by reason of the applied mathematic relations occurring between the constructional elements of the image of a map and the geographical reality. Such relations are, on one hand, the size, the shape or the location of the constructional graphic elements on the surface of a map in accordance with the factual state of the actual objects represented with their aid. On the other hand, the mathematic relations are also the quantitative and qualitative characteristics which are represented with the assistance of other graphical assets of the constructional elements, such as color, width of a line or the kind of the sign s pattern. Relations described in such way are a result of functioning of a code which defines the manner of assigning mental contents to the respective structural elements. A psycholinguistic analysis (Neytchev P. 1996, 1998) reveals that this code is very similar to the double-articulated code (like a natural language) and a name the map language can be applied to. From the psycholinguistic point of view it constitutes a tool of a human mind with the help of which a so called cartographic composition, communiqué, to be more precise, is formed and that is a map. A layout of the proposed units of the map language from its linguistic concept s point of view is presented in the table (Figure 2). In the opinion of this paper s author a major task of every cartographic composition is to transmit information about chosen objects, phenomena and relations appearing in a geographic environment together with their quantitativequalitative characteristics. In order to do that, speaking in the most general terms, an creator of a map, apart from the set of cartographic signs and a collection of mathematic-logical rules, uses a set of editorial guidelines. Considering the issue more precisely, one can state, that a set of cartographic signs prepared and laid out beforehand in the legend of a map contains all the elementary concepts (equivalent to the respective concepts of a given language s lexicon) that are to be presented in a given cartographic composition. A collection of the mathematic-logical rules determines precisely how to and create agreed signs, in what way to locate them (individually and collectively) on a specific plane (or other surface), in such a way that they become the informational units consequently conveying a specific mental contents between an author of composition and its user. The mathematic-logical rules, therefore, determine a two-dimensional geometry, upon which a material substance of the informational units is organized. Depending on the destination, scale and the depicted objects, relations and phenomena, various sorts of cartographic compositions are created. Each of them composes, with respect to content-relation, a complete and an independent transmission of chorological information of a fragment of the geographic environment depicted with their aid. The manner in which the contents of various sorts of cartographic compositions are organized is somewhat dissimilar and hinges upon a properly selected set of editorial guidelines. The said guidelines regulate the adequate arrangement of separate informational units appearing in a given cartographic composition in such a way that the complete perception of their set composes a certain entirety in a semantic regard. An entirety of a mental image namely, which an author of a map attempts to convey to the users. 4. THE IMAGE OF A MAP AND THE CARTOGRAPHIC RESEARCH METHOD A map is treated as a system of signs remaining in a determined relation with the geographic reality represented by these signs and its users. Those relations are considered in three different aspects, characteristic of the sign systems confined within the linguistic categories: - a s e m a n t i c a s p e c t, referring to relations that occur between the signs and that what they denote; - a s y n t a c t i c a s p e c t, regulating direct and indirect relations between signs; - a p r a g m a t i c a s p e c t, defining relations between the signs and their users. Three basic functions of a map can be distinguished ( Salishchev K. A. 1982): - c o m m u n i c a t i o n a l, depending on the storage and the transmission of spatial information; - o p e r a t i o n a l, related to a direct resolution of various practical tasks; - c o g n i t i v e, serving the means of spatial research into environmental phenomena and societies, as well the acquisition of knew knowledge about them.

7 The first two of the aforesaid functions emerge from a possibility of the utilization of information which can be obtained directly from the image of a map. The third, as far as it is concerned, is based on the information that can be attained throughout the analysis of the image of a map with the application of inductive and deductive concluding to that purpose. Such possibilities of a map are resultant from a fact that it composes a communiqué created with the help of the map language and every language as a system serves two basic functions: generative and cognitive. The first of those enables to form an intelligible text, whereas the second one makes it possible to experience the surrounding world. The map language serves two functions as well. Therefore, with its help comprehensible cartographic communiqués are formed which consequently constitute a source of potential knowledge about the geographic reality. The application of maps for description, analysis and scientific cognition of different phenomena is referred to as the cartographic research method. The contemporary exponents of the cognitive theory take in the of recognizing reality with the help of maps as the subject of research, including the of map-creation as well. They describe their approach as cognitive cartography combining contemporary outlooks of cognitive psychology and semiotics. Research into cognitive aspects of reception and interpretation of a map is carried out within the confines of this scientific trend. A map is not treated solely as an stimulus which a perceptive system of an individual reacts to, but also as a tool of visualization and research into spatial representations where the procedure of ing information is the basis of. Map reception is considered not in the aspect of a direct reaction to a stimulus (as one would react to a painting of an artist or a photographic picture) but in the context of cognitive es of a higher degree which take part in resolving different tasks actively involved in the procedure of cartographic information ing. This leads to a conception of so called spatial knowledge which links this scientific trend with semiotics, particularly in the range related to the mechanisms of encrypting and storing information. The psychologists (Navon D. 1977, Tversky B. 1981, McNamara T. P. 1986) attested that the spatial representations composing a component of spatial knowledge are characterized by a hierarchic structure which is strictly related with a hierarchic structure of memory. Research on maps, under the leadership of S. E. Palmer (1977) and J. R. Eastmann (1985), confirmed that this structure is compatible with a hierarchic structure of the image of a map. Furthermore, the research of W. Zyszkowska (1999) into cognitive information encrypting mechanisms indicate that - although the reception of a map is strictly related with visual perception where visual encrypting takes part, the role of verbal encrypting that is strictly connected with hierarchic structure of memory is not of lesser importance. Perception of the image of a map causes that on the basis of observed graphic signs and their location on the surface of a map in a mind of an observer of that image certain judgments are generated. If the observer is conscious of the meaning of the graphic signs and the principles upon the basis of which they are located on the surface of a map, a certain organized entirety of the representation of a spatial environment together with chosen objects and natural or anthropogenic phenomena is created in his mind, forming a quantitatively and qualitatively strictly determined mental model of a fragment of geographical reality (See Figure3). It attests again, that in order to explain the creation of the image of a map and its proper perception a certain semiotic system is required on the model of the double-articulated code, such as the map language is. The image of a map, according to the linguistic concept of the map language, constitutes communiqué and that is a set of thematically related cartographic statements. A mental model of a fragment of reality is hidden within the set of semantic contents of those statements. A user of a map (a recipient of information), in an opposite way, perceives cartographic statements and recreates, in his own mind, a transmitted mental model of a fragment of reality with the help of the map language. The relations that occur between the objects and the phenomena as well as their quantitative-qualitative characteristics presented on a mental model and the knowledgebase of a recipient and his demand enable him to research further into a fragment of the geographical reality. An image of a map can be compared to an image of a textual composition. The latter constitutes a syntactic-semantic, one- or two-dimensional construction of a structurally related graphic (or verbal) elements creating a physical carrier of psychical contents on the basis of which a spatial, thematically determined mental image of so presented fragment of a reality is created in the mind of an individual familiar with the principles of structural relations (in this case - semantic, syntactic and stylistic) of the applied graphic (or verbal) components. There is a possibility of further analysis duly to the demand and the capacity of knowledge of the user of a textual composition.

8 The complete scope of the activities related with creation of a textual composition is arranged by structural principles (semantic, syntactic and stylistic) of a natural language. The entire spectrum of the activities related with creation of the image of a map is arranged by structural principles (semantic, mathematic and editorial) of the map language. The reality can also be researched into by an author (creator) of a map. Forming a transmission of a model of a fragment of reality in the encrypted form, with the help of the map language, the author chooses such means of cartographic visualization (means of transmitting information) that emphasize the features and relations characteristic of this fragment of reality (or of its selected elements). In other words, an author of a map constructs cartographic statements in such a way that their semantic contents exhibit characteristic qualities and relations which make it possible to recognize a fragment of the reality, or objects and phenomena which occur on it, in a given guided way. This, consequently, proves that the possibilities of the cartographic research method emerge not only from the structural relations between constructional elements of the map image and from appropriately selected graphic (or plastic) appearance and semantic contents (psychical substance) of the particular cartographic signs. REFERENCES Eastman J. R., 1985, Graphic organization and memory structures for map learning, Cartographica, t. 22, nr 1, s Kozielecki J., 1992, Myslenie i rozwiazywanie problemow, In: Psychologia ogolna, T.1, Wydawnictwo naukowe PWN, Warszawa. Kurcz I., 1992, Pamiec.Uczenie siê.jezyk, In: Psychologia ogolna, T.3, Wydawnictwo naukowe PWN, Warszawa. McNamara T. P., 1986, Mental representation of spatial relations, Cognitive Psychology, vol. 18, Navon D., 1977, Forest before trees: the precedence of global features in visual perception, Cognitive Psychology, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, s Neytchev P., 1997, The structure of the map language, Prac. Kartografii i Fotointerpretacji UG, Gdansk. Neytchev P., 2001, Syntactic components of cartographic sentence, In: Mapping the 21 st Century, ICC, International Cartographic Association, Beijing, s

9 Neytchev P., 2003, Semiotic-linguistic aspects of cartographic generalization, In: Maschinen und Geschichte, Beiträge des 9. Internationalen Kongresses der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Semiotik, Dresdner Studien zur Semiotik, Dresden. Palmer S. E.,1977, Hierarchical structure in perceptual representation, Cognitive Psychology, vol. 9, s Salishchev K. A., 1975, O kartograficzeskom mietodie poznania, Viestn. Mosk. Univ., nr 1, s Salishchev K. A., 1982, Kartoviedenie, Izdatelstvo Moskievskogo Universiteta, Moskva. Tversky B., 1981, Distortion in memory for maps, Cognitive Psychology, vol. 13, s Ýyszkowska W., 1999, Cognitive aspects of map perception and factors causing differences between individuals, Polish Cartography, Head Office of Geodesy and Cartography, Warszawa, s