Solutions of sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid are placed together H + + OH - H 2 O

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1 AP Chemistry Exam Review Reactions Metal and oxygen gas Metal oxide Hydrogen gas is burned Water Solid calcium is placed in oxygen gas Calcium oxide Alkali metals and water Metal Hydroxide (maybe split up) + H 2 (g) (boom, exothermic) Sodium metal placed in water Na + + OH - + H 2 (g) Metal oxide and water Metal hydroxide (maybe split up) Solid sodium oxide is added to water Na + + OH - Nonmetal oxide and water Acid (maybe split) Sulfur dioxide gas is bubbled through water H 2 SO 4 Solid ammonium carbonate is heated NH 3 + CO 2 + H 2 O Solid potassium chlorate is heated with a catalyst KCl + O 2 What is the difference between a Bronsted-Lowry acid/base reaction and a Lewis acid/base reaction? Bronsted lowry acids give H +, Lewis bases give an electron Solutions of sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid are placed together H + + OH - H 2 O Solutions of potassium hydroxide and hydrofluoric acid are placed together HF + OH - F - +H 3 O + What is the conjugate base in the reaction above? F - Solid sodium carbonate is placed with hydrochloric acid H + + Na 2 CO 3 H 2 O + CO 2 + Na + Solutions of sodium hydroxide is added to a solution of ammonium nitrate NH OH - NH 3 + H 2 O Solutions of silver nitrate is placed with sodium chloride Ag + + Cl - AgCl (s) What color is the above reaction? White Solutions of lead nitrate is placed with sodium iodide Pb 2+ +2I - PbI 2 (s) What color is the above reaction? Yellow Solid zinc is placed in a solution of silver nitrate Zn + 2Ag + Zn Ag Which is oxidized? Zinc Which is at the cathode? Silver What is the standard cell potential? 1.56 V Is it spontaneous? How do you know? Spontaneous, the E is positive How many electrons are transferred? 2 electrons

2 What was the initially molarity of the solutions? 1M List 6 strong acids HCl, HBr, HI, H 2 SO 4, HNO 3, HClO 4 List 2 strong bases NaOH, KOH What is difference between strong and weak acids? Strong acid dissociate 100%, weak acids do not dissociate List the 4 spectator ions that are always spectators in solutions. Alkali Metal ions, NO - 3, C 2 H 3 O - + 2, NH 4 Shapes CH 4 H 2 S NH 3 What is the shape of each molecule? Tetrahedral bent trigonal pyramidal What is the hybridization of each molecule? sp3 sp3 sp3 Which has the largest dipole moment? Largest H-Boding What are their bond angles and why? (decreasing because of more unshared pairs) SF 4 XeF 4 BrF 5 ClF 3 What is the hybridization of each? sp3d sp3d2 sp3d2 sp3d What is the shape of each? seesaw square planar square pyr. T-shaped Bonding Trends H 2 S has a higher boiling point than CO 2. Polar/nonpolar H 2 O has a higher boiling point than H 2 S. Hydrogen bonding/dipole-dipole I 2 is a solid whereas F 2 is a gas. Both London Dispersion forces. I 2 has greater molar mass/# of electrons, more of a chance of an instantaneous dipole NaCl is a solid whereas H 2 O is a liquid. Ionic/Covalent LiF has a higher melting point than CsBr. Both Ionic, Higher Lattice Energy because smaller means more attraction. MgO has a higher melting point than NaF. Both Ionic, Higher Lattice Energy because MgO is +2/-2 which is more attraction. SiO 2 is a solid and H 2 O is a liquid. Covalent network, covalent NH 3 is soluble in water but not benzene (C 6 H 6 ). Polar/Nonpolar like dissolves like/ What is the difference between polar and nonpolar? Assymetric/Symmetric Li is smaller than Cs. Valence electrons have more attraction to positive nucleus. S 2- is larger than Cl -. More valence electrons gives more repulsion

3 O is smaller than Li. More valence electrons, more protons, more attraction between nucleus and electrons. K has a smaller ionization energy than Na. Less energy to remove electron, because valence electrons are further away from nucleus less attraction. Cs is very reactive in water. Less energy to remove electron, because valence electrons are further away from nucleus less attraction. B has a lower first ionization energy than Be. B has one electron in p, Be has a full s orbital less energy to lose the one in the p 1 st IE = 400, 2 nd IE = 800, 3 rd IE = 4000, 4 th IE = 4500 what element could this be? Jump in energy is at 2 nd electron, it could be Mg, Be, Ca, Sr, or Br Descriptive Chemistry Why is Fe attracted to a magnet and not Zn. Fe is partially filled d orbital paramagnetic. Zn is fully filled d orbital - diamagnetic What color is zinc chloride, why? White, fully filled d orbital. NO 2 does what? Dimerize, double molar mass, bond with itself (oh and its brown) SO 2 has a bond order of 1.5, why? It has resonance (one single, one double) CO 2 has two double bonds how many sigma and pi bonds are there? 2 sigma, 2 pi. In order alcohol, amine, ketone, ester, carboxylic acid, ether, aldehyde Colors Na + yellow Cu +2 greenish-blue Fe(NO 3 ) 2 (aq) orange KMnO 4 (aq) purple AgCl white

4 Ag 2 S black PbI 2 yellow CuCl 2 (aq) blue NO 2 (g) brown H 2 colorless, whoop or boom in presence of a flame N 2 colorless, 78% of atmosphere, puts a flame out O 2 colorless, 21% of atmosphere, ignites a flame CO 2 colorless, puts out flame Stoichiometry, Gases, Solutions, and States of Matter When can you use 22.4 L/mol? 1 atm, 25 C Moles = mass divided by Molar mass Grams = Molarity x Volume (L) x Molar Mass If given mass or %, how do you find the empirical formula? Divide by molar mass to get into moles, divide by smallest one to find ratio of moles that is your empirical formula. Equation for any dilution or titration: M 1 V 1 = M 2 V 2 In a titration, what does that equation find? Equivalence point What is the equivalence point? When the moles of acid is equal to the moles of base What is the end point? When the color of the solution changes What happens when you are half way to the equivalence point? ph = pka (buffer) What are conditions for an ideal gas? High Temp, Low Pressure At what conditions does an ideal gas deviate? Low Temp, High Pressure What affects the KE of a gas? Absolute Temperature What affects the speed of a gas? Temperature and Molar Mass What gas effuses the fastest? Lowest Molar Mass If given moles and total pressure, how do you find partial pressure? Moles / total moles = Partial Pressure / Total Pressure What is it called when you go from a solid directly to a gas? Sublime What happens to the temperature when changing the state of matter? Temperature stays constant, Energy changing What is happened to the molecule when you are changing the state of matter? Breaking intermolecular attractions, NOT the bonds.

5 What happens to the freezing, boiling points, and vapor pressure when you make a solution? BP goes up, FP goes down, Vapor Pressure goes down What are the three equations you use for that solution problem? ΔT = Km m=mol/kg Mm=mass/mol Which has a higher boiling point in a solution C 6 H 12 O 6, NaCl, or Na 2 SO 4. Na 2 SO 4 (3 particles) Thermochemistry If given a list of reactions, what can you do to the reactions and the ΔH? Flip and multiply/divide If given H f or S f or G f, what do you do? Sum of products sum of reactants (multiply by # of moles) If given bond energies, what energy goes into breaking bonds? Forming bonds? + energy breaks bonds, - energy forms bonds ΔG = ΔH - T ΔS, what does negative mean for ΔG, ΔH, ΔS? What do you have to make sure of before calculating? Negative means spontaneous, exothermic, less disorder. Change into Joules At equilibrium, what equals 0? ΔG Kinetics What does a catalyst do? Lowers activation energy What are four ways to increase the rate of a reaction? Concentration, particle size, catalyst, temperature What happens to the rate if you double the concentration in a 0 order reaction? 1 st order? 2 nd order? Stays the same at zero order, doubles at first order, quadruples at second order. If the reaction is overall 3 rd order, what are the units of k? M -2 sec -1 What is the difference between a catalyst and an intermediate? Catalyst is not in the reaction, intermediate is formed and then consumed What do you graph (starting with concentration and time) on your x and y axis for 1 st order to get a linear graph? 2 nd order? First order ln [A] vs t, Second order 1 / [A] vs t What is the half-life equation for a first order reaction? t half-life = / k What do you graph given k and Temp, to find activation energy? How do you find activation energy? ln k vs 1/T, Slope = -Ea / R Electrochemistry Losing electrons is = oxidation Cathode is where what occurs = reduction Reaction you flip is what = oxidation reaction Oxidized element is the what agent = reducing agent Electrons flow from = anode to cathode E has to be what to be spontaneous positive

6 What is the best salt bridge made out of? What if salt bridge is removed? Na + NO 3 -, no voltage or no current If you add concentration of reactants, what happens to the E? more spontaneous, E is more positive Equilibrium How do you know you are at equilibrium? The rates of the forward and reverse reaction are the same What happens to your K if you reverse the reaction? What happens if you multiply all the coefficients by 2? Reverse reaction = K -1, double the reaction coefficients = K 2 Kp = Kc (RT) Δn what is R, T, and Δn stand for? R = , T = Temp in K, Δn = change in moles If concentration of reactants is added, where does the reaction shift? Toward products If heat is added to an exothermic reaction, where does the reaction shift? Toward reactants If pressure is increased by decreasing volume of gas, where does the reaction shift? Towards the least number of moles % dissociation = x / M o x 100% ph = - log (H + ) ph + poh = 14 [H + ] = 10 -ph HA + H 2 O A - + H 3 O + Write equilibrium expression. Ka = [A - ][H 3 O + ]/[HA] Given Ka and initial Molarity, M, write how to find ph. Ka = x 2 / [M o ] Given ph and initial Molarity, M, write how to find K. Find H + then [H + ] 2 /[M o -H + ] = Ka Larger the Ka = stronger the acid Given grams of NaF and Molarity and Volume of HF, how would you find the ph? What equation would you use? What is this called? Find molarity of F -, then plug into ph = pka log [A - ]/[HA], buffer Titrations before equivalence point = do a buffer problem where OH - = A - and [HA] is left over acid Titrations at equivalence point = flip to a Kb problem and do a x 2 /M o of OH - PbI 2 (s) Pb 2+ (aq) + 2 I - (aq) Write equilibrium expression. Ksp = [Pb 2+ ][I - ] 2 What is the ratio of I - to Pb 2+? 2 to 1 ratio Given Ksp, how would you find molar solubility? Ksp = 4x 3 Given Molarity of Pb 2+, how would you find Ksp? Pb 2+ = x so (x) (2x) 2 = Ksp If Molarity of Pb(NO 3 ) 2 (aq) is given with Ksp, how would you find I - concentration? Ksp = (M) (2x) 2

7 If you removed water, what happens to K? nothing, concentration is independent of volume in Ksp problems If NaI (aq) is added, what happens to the Pb 2+ concentration? If I - concentration increases, then Pb 2+ decreases. If given Molarity of Pb 2+ and I - and Ksp, what do you do? What can you find out? Do a Q problem, plug in the numbers and then compare to the Ksp and find if a precipitate occurs. 2 HI (g) H 2 (g) + I 2 (g) Write the equilibrium expression. Kc = [H 2 ][I 2 ]/[HI] 2 What do you need to know in order to do ICE? Initial molarity and one equilibrium molarity. Show ICE to get your K value. Kc = [M at equilibrium] 2 /[M o M at equilibrium] 2

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