Liquids and Solids The Condensed States of Matter
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1 Liquids and Solids The Condensed States of Matter AP Chemistry Ms. Grobsky
2 Where We Have Been And Where We Are Going In the last few chapters, we saw that atoms can form stable units called molecules by sharing electrons Called intramolecular forces Occur within the molecule However, think back to gases... As we were introduced to ideal gases, we learned from KMT that ideal gases exhibit no attractions between colliding molecules BUT, WE KNOW THIS IS NOT TRUE IN THE REAL-WORLD
3 Non-Ideality and the Condensed States of Matter The same source of non-ideality for gases explains how liquids and solids form forces Occur between molecules
4 Let s Explore a Little Bit Chemical Cocktail
5 Importance of As the mini-lab has shown, differences in attractive forces present in a compound as a result of its structure is directly related to differences in its physical properties
6 Importance of More specifically, IMFs are directly related to properties such as MP, BP, and the energies to overcome the forces of attraction between particles in changes of state (ΔH fus and ΔH vap ) Determines solubility of gases, liquids and solids in various solvents Crucial in determining structure of biological macromolecules such as DNA and proteins
7 Note - these attractions between molecules are not nearly as strong as the intramolecular attractions that hold compounds together
8 IMFs are generally referred to as van der Waals forces These forces exist over short-range distances (nm)
9 van der Waals van der Waals include: Dipole-dipole interactions London dispersion forces Hydrogen bonding Ion-dipole
10 What are Dipole-Dipole Interactions? Molecules that have permanent dipoles are attracted to each other The positive end of one is attracted to the negative end of the other and viceversa These forces are only important when the molecules are close to each other
11 Dipole-Dipole Interactions For molecules of about the same molecular weight, what can you conclude about the relationship between BP and molecular polarity? The more polar the molecule, the higher is its boiling point.
12 Another IMF London Dispersion While the electrons in the 1s orbital of helium would repel each other (and, therefore, tend to stay far away from each other), it does happen that they occasionally wind up on the same side of the atom
13 London Dispersion At that instant, then, the helium atom is polar, with an excess of electrons on the left side and a shortage on the right side An instantaneous dipole results
14 London Dispersion Another helium nearby, then, would have a dipole induced in it, as the electrons on the left side of helium atom 2 repel the electrons in the cloud on helium atom 1
15 London Dispersion London dispersion forces, or dispersion forces, are attractions between an instantaneous dipole and an induced dipole
16 London Dispersion These forces are present in all molecules, whether they are polar or nonpolar The tendency of an electron cloud to distort in this way is called polarizability
17 Factors Affecting London From the above data, what can you conclude about the relationship between molecular weight and strength of London forces? Can you explain this relationship in terms of polarizability?
18 Factors Affecting London The strength of dispersion forces tends to increase with increased molecular weight Larger atoms have larger electron clouds, which are easier to polarize
19 Factors Affecting London What can you conclude about the relationship between molecular shape and the strength of London forces? Why do you think shape has this effect?
20 Factors Affecting London The shape of the molecule affects the strength of dispersion forces: long, skinny molecules (like n-pentane) tend to have stronger dispersion forces than short, fat ones (like neopentane) This is due to the increased surface area, such as in n- pentane
21 How Do We Explain This? BP of some simple hydrogen compounds The nonpolar series (SnH 4 to CH 4 ) follow the expected trend The polar series follows the trend from H 2 Te through H 2 S, but water is quite an anomaly
22 Hydrogen Bonding A Special Case of Dipole-Dipole IMF The dipole-dipole interactions experienced when H is bonded to N, O, or F are unusually strong Groups are highly polar; thus, the exposed H atom has almost a full +1 charge We call these interactions hydrogen bonds NOT covalent bonds!
23 Hydrogen Bonding Hydrogen bonding arises in part from the high electronegativity of nitrogen, oxygen, and fluorine Also, when hydrogen is bonded to one of those very electronegative elements, the hydrogen nucleus is exposed
24 Ion-Dipole Interactions A fourth type of force, ion-dipole interactions are an important force in solutions of ions The strength of these forces are what make it possible for ionic substances to dissolve in polar solvents
25 Which IMF Has a Greater Effect?
26 Summarizing
27 Affect Many Physical Properties The strength of the attractions between particles can greatly affect the properties of a liquid or solution Some properties of liquids: Viscosity Surface tension Capillary action Heat of vaporization Vapor pressure Boiling point Critical temperature and pressure
28 Viscosity Resistance of a liquid to flow is called viscosity Stickiness when pouring) SI units are kg/m s Viscosity increases with stronger intermolecular forces and decreases with higher temperature
29 Surface Tension Surface tension results from the net inward force experienced by the molecules on the surface of a liquid It is the phenomenon that maintains the surface interface between liquid and gas The greater the IMF, the greater the surface tension Water has a much greater surface tension than acetone
30 Evaporation At any temperature, some molecules in a liquid have enough energy to escape As the temperature rises, the fraction of molecules that have enough energy to escape increases The greater the IMF, the less the evaporation rate
31 Vapor Pressure of a Liquid As more molecules escape the liquid, the pressure they exert as a gas increases The greater the IMF, the lower the vapor pressure The liquid and vapor eventually reach a state of dynamic equilibrium Liquid molecules evaporate and vapor molecules condense at the same rate This point in time is defined as a liquid s vapor pressure
32 Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point If heat is added to this system, the IMFs present in the liquid will break, creating more gaseous molecules Eventually, the liquid s vapor pressure will equal the atmospheric pressure at a particular temperature Defined as the liquid s boiling point Normal boiling point is the temperature at which the liquid s vapor pressure is 760 torr (1 atm) The stronger the IMF, the higher the boiling point
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