Atoms, the basic building block of matter, are composed of three basic particles. Nucleus: Proton (+) Neutron (-) Outside the nucleus: Electron (-)

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1 Atoms, the basic building block of matter, are composed of three basic particles Nucleus: Proton (+) Neutron (-) Outside the nucleus: Electron (-) Atomic number = # protons Atomic mass number = # protons + neutrons For an atom to be in its elemental form, the atom must be neutral (0-charge) (i.e. # protons = # electrons) 1

2 isotopes (from Greek) isos = equal, topos = site or place Isotopes are atoms of the same element with a different atomic mass number (what varies, the # of protons or the # of neutrons?) Electrons exist in spaces called orbitals. There are 4 major types of orbitals (s, p, d, f) Each type of orbital has a unique shape. Only two electrons may occupy an orbital (or suborbital) at one time. Therefore, when an orbital or sub-orbital is full, subsequent electrons must fill new orbitals. There can be more than one orbital in a shell (a shell is a completely filled set of orbitals). When a shell is filled, a new shell is needed and the process of filling the shell (by filling the orbitals) starts again. Each new shell represents a period (hence the term periodic table) the horizontal rows. 2

3 1s 1s 2s 2 p 3s 3 p 4s 3d 4 p 5s 4d 5 p 6s * 5d 6 p 7s ** 6d s block elements p block elements * ** 4f 5f d block elements f block elements The vertical rows are called groups. As you go down in a group, the atoms have one more shell than the atom above it. It is important to remember that the shells are added to subsequent atoms. Therefore, period 2 atoms contain all of the electron orbitals and the electrons in them that period 1 atoms have Period 5 atoms contain all of the electron orbitals and electrons that atoms of periods 1-4 have etc. The outermost shell is the valence shell and the electrons within the orbitals within the valence shell are called valence electrons. Chemical vs Nuclear Nuclear reactions are those reactions that involve a change to the nucleus of atoms Chemical reactions do NOT involve a change to the nucleus chemical reactions are about electrons! 3

4 Most elements on Earth do not exist in the elemental form (uncharged atom). Rather, most elements exist as charged particles (Ions). Cations (positive charge +) Anions (negative charge -) Ions have a different number of electrons with respect to protons Cations: Ionic charge tends to increase from left to right on the periodic table Why? 4

5 Cations: Ionic charge tends to increase from left to right on the periodic table Why? There are more electrons in the valence (outermost) shell. The more electrons removed (to become a stable ion), the greater the charge. (In general, metals tend to lose electrons to become cations) Anions: Ionic charge tends to increase (increasingly negative) from right to left on the periodic table Atoms get smaller from left to right on the periodic table Why? Atoms get smaller from left to right on the periodic table Why? Stronger attractive forces in atoms between the opposite charges in the nucleus and electron cloud cause the atom to be 'sucked' together a little tighter. 5

6 Atoms tend to get larger from top to bottom on the periodic Table Why? Atoms tend to get larger from top to bottom on the periodic Table Why? The nucleus is bigger and there are new electron orbitals (shells) added each time you move from period to period down a group. Ionic Potential = z/r (ion charge/ion size) How should ionic potential change left to right? Down? 6

7 7

8 The higher the IP, the more strongly the cation bonds with oxygen Elements with really high IP values tend to bond so strongly with oxygen that they make oxyanions (CO 3 --, NO 3 --, SO 4 -- ) The oxyanions are so strongly bonded to oxygen that when bonded to another cation, the additional cation and the cation in the oxyanion repel each other therefore, many oxyanions can be thought of as simple anions that bond weakly with cations Some basic relationships observed using the Ionic Potential: 3-10: -tend to form oxides (bond with oxygen) -concentrated in soils (not very soluble strongly bonded so don t dissociate in solution) -enter early-forming igneous phases (olivine) compatible elements -least depleted in the mantle (stay in the solids and don t enter the melt phase easily) the oxides of these cations tend to have -high melting T -low solubility -greatest hardness -greatest bulk modulus (resistance to uniform compression) <4, >8 -tend to make Fluoride minerals -abundant in river and seawater (bond more weakly so they dissociate in water) -important nutrients (they dissolve, thus they can be used by plants etc.) >8 -tend to form oxysalts (sulfates, arsenates, carbonates) The classic description of elements (by Goldschmidt) Siderophile: abundant in the core do not bond well with O or S (platinum (Pt) group metals, including ruthium (Ru), rhodium (Rd), palladium (Pd), osmium (Os), and iridium (Ir)) Chalcophile: tend to bond with S to make sulfide minerals (Intermediate cations) typical elements include iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn) Lithophile: have a high bonding affinity with O to make the silicates (hard cations) typical elements include magnesium (Mg), aluminum (Al), sodium (Na), potassium (K), iron (Fe), and calcium (Ca). 8

9 Electrical Neutrality: Substance in nature tend to be electrically neutral. This includes minerals and water. Therefore, if we know the charge of the cations and anions that are bonding together to make a mineral or are dissolved in water, we should be able to predict the mineral formula or the amounts of the cations and anions in water. Ex. What is the mineral formula of the halide mineral sodium fluoride? Na is a cation with a +1 charge F is an anion with a -1 charge The mineral formula must be NaF because 1 + is balanced by 1 to make a neutral compound. The mineral formula is typically written in its simplest ratio (not always) we don t write Na 2 F 2 even though this compound would be neutral. 9

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