B. Sitar G. I. Merso n V. A. Chechin Yu. A. Budagov. Ionization Measurement s in High Energy Physics

Transcription

1 B. Sitar G. I. Merso n V. A. Chechin Yu. A. Budagov Ionization Measurement s in High Energy Physics

2 Springer Tracts in modern physics ; v. 124)

3 0. Introduction 1 References 6 1. Ionization Effects in a Polarizable Medium Ionization Energy Loss by Charged Particles in a Medium Differential Collision Cross Sectio n of Fast Charged Particles with Atoms Ionization Energy Loss Primary Ionization and the Number of Collisions Fluctuations and the Most Probable Energy Los s in Thin Samples of Matter 4 8 References Physical Processes in Gas Ionization Detectors Ionization of Gas in a Detector Transport of Electrons in a Gas Thermalization of Electrons Diffusion of Electrons in the Absenc e of an Electric Field (Thermal Diffusion) Motion of Electrons in an Electric Field The Boltzmann Equation and Its Solutions Diffusion of Electrons in an Electric Field Drift and Diffusion of Electrons in a Magnetic Field Drift and Diffusion of Ions Motion of Ions in a Gas Charge Transfer During Ion Transport Change in the Degree of Ionization Due to Drift of Electrons Processes Enhancing the Observed Ionization Processes Decreasing the Ionization Electron Attachment Registration of Ionization Excitation of Atoms by Electron Impact Ionization by Electron Impact Photo-absorption and Photo-ionization Gas Amplification Quenching of the Discharge 93

4 2.5.6 Amplitude Resolution of a Proportional Counter The Proportionality Condition Gas Amplification in a Proportional Chamber Signal Formation in a Proportional Detector 10 2 References Ionization Measurements in Proportional Detectors Multilayer Proportional Detectors Types of Multilayer Proportional Detectors Multilayer Proportional Chambers (MPCs) Multilayer Drift Chambers (MDCs) Cylindrical Drift Chambers (CDCs) Time Projection Chamber (TPC) The Jet Chamber CDCs with Symmetric Cells Stereo Superlayer Chambers (SSCs) Planar Drift Chambers (PDCs) Cylindrical Proportional Chambers (CPCs) Choice of Parameters of a Multilayer Proportional Detector Thickness and Number of Layers Mechanical Tolerances in the Construction of a Proportional Detector Choice of Gas Mixture Gas Mixture for Particle Identification Purity of a Gas Mixture Gas Pressure and Range of Momenta for Reliable Particle Identification Physical Processes in a Gas and Precisio n of Ionization Measurements Space Charge Near the Wire Space Charge in the Chamber Volume Changes in Signal in Proportional Detectors and Electronics Exchange of Charge Between Layers and Channels Signal Shape and Ionization Resolution Calibration of a Detector Long-Term Stability Processing of Data in a Multilayer Ionization Detector Selection of Points for Ionization Measurements Statistical Analysis of Ionization Data from a Multilayer Detector Determining the Mass of a Particle Reliability of Particle Identification Calculated and Experimental Ionization Resolutions Resolution in Test Conditions Resolution in a Physical Experiment 158

5 3.7.3 Application of Proportional Detector s in Physical Experiments Cluster Counting in a Chamber with Longitudinal Electron Drift Cluster Counting Method Measurement Conditions Electronics for Chambers with Longitudinal Electron Drift Factors Limiting the Cluster Counting Method Ionization Measurement in Very Thin Samples of Gas Ionization Measurement in a Chamber with Longitudinal Electron Drift Relativistic Rise in Thin Gas Samples Reliability of Identification by Ionization Measurement s in Thin Gas Samples 174 References Spatial Resolution and Electronics of Multilayer Proportional Detectors Spatial Resolution of Drift Chambers Factors Contributing to Spatial Resolution Timing Methods Resolution in Real Drift Chambers High Precision Gas Coordinate Detectors High Resolution Drift Chambers Induction Drift Chamber High Precision MWPC with Cathode Readout Parallel Plate Avalanche Chamber Gas Coordinate Detectors Versus Silicon an d Scintillating Fiber (SCIFI) Detectors Spatial Resolution of MDCs Planar MDCs Cylindrical MDCs Measurement of Coordinate Along the Sense Wires Left-Right Ambiguity MDCs in a Magnetic Field Count Rate Capability of MDCs Methods of Enhancing the Count Rate Capability of MDCs Calibration of Large MDCs Drift Chamber Ageing Readout and Processing of Informatio n in Multilayer Proportional Chambers Multilayer Proportional Chamber (MPC) Readout Multilayer Drift Chamber (MDC) Readout Multihit Time-to-Digital Converter (MHTDC) 225

6 4.5.4 ADCs with Analog Memory Based on Capacitors Analog Memory Based on CCDs Waveform Digitizer Comparison of Readout Methods 23 0 References Ionization Measurements in Gas Track Detectors Ionization Measurements in Cloud Chambers Determining the Ionizing Powers of Particle s with Spark Chambers Ionization Measurements in a Streamer Chamber Methods of Track Information Analysis 27 4 References Alternative Methods of Ionization Measurement Application of Ionization Chambers for Measuring High Ionization Densities Determination of the Ionization from the Efficienc y of a Gas-discharge Detector Possibilities of Ionization Measuremen t in Gas Scintillation Detectors 30 3 References 306 List of Names and Abbreviations 30 9 List of Symbols 31 5 Subject Index 331