6.1 The Periodic Table

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1 6.1 The Periodic Table The elements can be divided into metals, nonmetals, and metalloids There are about 118 known elements. Based on their physical and chemical properties, they belong to one of three broad categories: metals, nonmetals, and metalloids. Metals are malleable and shiny and conduct electricity, and they are generally solid at room temperature. Examples include aluminum and copper. Nonmetals do not conduct electricity. Many nonmetals are gases or liquids at room temperature. Examples include nitrogen and oxygen. Metalloids have some properties similar to metals and some similar to nonmetals. Silicon is an important metalloid. Some elements are synthetic Technetium (number 43), promethium (number 61), and all of the elements above atomic number 92 do not have any stable isotopes. These elements are highly radioactive. They were synthesized in a laboratory by bombarding the nuclei of existing atoms with highenergy particles such as neutrons or other fast-moving atomic nuclei. 168 A NATURAL APPROACH TO CHEMISTRY

2 The periodic table and you You are made mostly of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen Take approximately 44,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms of the right kind, bond some of them together, mix the resulting bunch of molecules and ions together, and you could end up with a typical person weighing about 75 kg (or 165 lb). Of those atoms, over 99% of them would need to be only four different elements: hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen. Other elements are also essential for life, but they exist in much smaller numbers. TABLE 6.1. Elemental composition of the human body Element % by mole Hydrogen 63.0 Oxygen 26.0 Carbon 9.0 Nitrogen 1.25 Calcium 0.25 Phosphorus 0.19 Potassium 0.06 Sulfur 0.06 Sodium 0.04 Chlorine Magnesium Iron Iodine You are made from star dust There would also be trace amounts of almost every element on the table, because you are what you eat (and what you breathe), absorbing everything from your environment. Although hydrogen is the most common atom in your body, virtually all of the hydrogen in the universe was created in the Big Bang, so you have atoms in you that were present at the beginning of space and time. Even more incredible is the fact that almost all of the other atoms in your body must have been produced in the cores of exploding stars. These stars eventually provided the material from which the Earth was formed. You are literally made out of star dust! trace amount: a very small quantity. A NATURAL APPROACH TO CHEMISTRY 169

3 Essential elements Macronutrients and trace elements While traces of almost all naturally occurring elements exist in your body, there are a small number that are considered essential to life. To maintain a healthy body, there are some elements you need to have a lot of; these are called macronutrients. These are the ones that form the bulk of your body. Macronutrient elements such as Na, Mg, P, S, Cl, K, and Ca are come from mineral sources, while others such as C, H, N, and O are found in organic matter. There are also some elements that are beneficial in trace amounts but can be toxic if you have too much. The molecules of life Trace elements play special roles To make fats, carbohydrates, DNA, and proteins, you need hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur. Calcium is needed to build your bones, and it functions in many other ways as dissolved ions. Sodium, magnesium, potassium, and chlorine all exist as dissolved ions. They help to transport other molecules into and out of cells, firing your nerves so you can see, smell, hear, and touch, and controlling the amount of water that enters and leaves your cells. These are only a few of the functions done by these other macronutrients. The trace elements tend to have more specialized functions and are only present in extremely small amounts. You might be surprised to see chromium (Cr) on the list of essential elements. Some forms of Cr are know to cause cancer. However, in small amounts, Cr +3 ions are necessary to enhance insulin function, helping to control blood sugar levels. Other trace elements work together with enzymes to help them perform necessary biological functions. You would not be able to live without functioning enzymes. macronutrients: elements needed in large quantities by your body. trace elements: elements that are needed in very small quantities to maintain optimum health. 170 A NATURAL APPROACH TO CHEMISTRY

4 Periodic properties of the elements Searching for order in the elements Back in 1869, when the science of chemistry was still young, a scientist and teacher of chemistry named Dimitri Mendeleev was trying to figure out whether there was an organization to the elements. He was searching for a pattern he could use to organize them in a logical way. At that time little was known about atoms. He knew that elements had an atomic mass and some other physical and chemical properties. Mendeleev tried arranging elements in order of atomic mass. Protons had not yet been discovered, and atomic number was not known at that time. Mendeleev When he graphed the density of the elements versus their atomic mass he saw a pattern. Density is a periodic property He observed that the density of the elements followed a periodic pattern, meaning that the pattern would repeat at regular intervals. Here he saw the density increase and then decrease in a repetitive pattern. The periodic table is named for this because the rows are organized by repeated patterns found in both the atomic structures and the properties of the elements. periodic: repeating at regular intervals. A NATURAL APPROACH TO CHEMISTRY 171

5 Atomic level periodic properties Atomic level properties match patterns of easily observable properties Mendeleev could have known nothing about the properties of individual atoms. Very little was known about atoms during his lifetime other than the belief that atoms existed. The internal structure consisting of protons, neutrons and electrons had yet to be discovered. Only the bulk properties that could be measured, such as density, melting point, boiling point, and the ratios of how one element would combine with another, were known. However, it would probably not surprise Mendeleev that atomic level properties would follow the same periodic patterns, closely matching easily observable properties already discussed. One simple example of a periodic atomic property is atomic size. The image below shows the relative size of atoms from the first 18 elements on the periodic table. Atomic level properties explain bonding As you can see, every time the pattern repeats, it coincides with the beginning of a new row in the periodic table. Density and reaction ratios with oxygen follow the exact same pattern. There are three important atomic level properties that we will consider, because they are very helpful in understanding the different kinds of bonding we will learn about in the next chapter. These properties are atomic radius, electronegativity, and ionization energy. 172 A NATURAL APPROACH TO CHEMISTRY

6 Atomic radius, electronegativity, and ionization energy Atomic radius: the size of an atom Electronegativity: how well one atom grabs electrons from another Ionization energy: how well an atom holds onto its own electrons The atomic radius describes the distance from the center of an atom to its outer edge. The words outer edge are in quotes because atoms don t have a sharply defined edge. The tiny nucleus is surrounded by a cloud of electrons. The space an electron occupies is defined by the orbitals occupied by its electrons. These orbitals describe where you are likely to find electrons. The outer edge of an atom is defined by the place where the likelihood of finding its electrons gets very low. Atoms share electrons whenever they bond together. In some cases they share the electrons equally or almost equally, causing a covalent bond to form. In other cases the sharing is so uneven that we consider one atom to have taken electrons from the other. This causes the formation of ions. An atom s electronegativity is the measure of how well it can attract electrons from another atom to which it is bonded. The ionization energy is the energy it takes to remove an electron from an atom. Electronegativity measures how well an atom can take electrons from another bonded atom, whereas ionization energy measures how well an atom holds onto its own electrons. You don t need to have an atom bonded to another atom when considering ionization energy. If you hit an individual atom with a photon of light with enough energy, you can cause an electron to get so excited that it jumps completely out of the atom, forming an ion. The minimum energy needed to make this happen is called the ionization energy. atomic radius: the distance from the center of an atom to its outer edge. electronegativity: the ability of an atom to attract another atom s electrons when bound to that other atom. ionization energy: the energy required to remove an electron from an atom. A NATURAL APPROACH TO CHEMISTRY 173

7 The first periodic table Chemical properties have a repeating pattern Density was a physical property of the elements that Mendeleev used in looking for patterns, but he also used chemical properties. For most of the elements, the ratio of how they react with either hydrogen or oxygen was already well known. Again, the elements were arranged in order of increasing atomic mass as with density, but this time the oxide or hydride formula was written instead of the value for density. Another pattern emerged. The first periodic table as suggested by Mendeleev in 1869 How the first periodic table was created If you take a look back at the density graph, you will find another reason to start a new row with Li, Na, K, Cu, and Rb. All of them, except for Cu, are at a point when the density is lowest and the pattern of densities starts to repeat. So, the repeating physical property of density seems to match up well with the repeating chemical properties of the elements. Mendeleev noticed this periodic pattern in both chemical and physical properties, so he arranged the elements into a table like the one you see above, with columns representing elements with similar chemical properties. 174 A NATURAL APPROACH TO CHEMISTRY

8 The modern periodic table The modern periodic table is organized by atomic number Nothing was known about the internal structure of atoms in Mendeleev s time. Protons hadn t been discovered yet, so the more logical ordering by atomic number was not possible. Today s periodic table includes many more elements and is ordered not by atomic mass but by atomic number. However, two things are still true of the periodic table. Each column still represents a group of elements with similar chemical properties, and each row (or period) still marks the beginning of a repeated pattern of physical or chemical properties. Elements can be broadly categorized into metals, nonmetals and metalloids, and an understanding that each column has similar chemical properties has led to names for some of these element groups. Groups of particular interest are the alkali metals (group 1), the alkaline earth metals (group 2), the halogens (group 17), and the noble gases (group 18). A NATURAL APPROACH TO CHEMISTRY 175

9 Orbitals and atomic radius The electron cloud in overlapping orbitals is what gives an atom its size One of the atomic level properties that we looked at previously was atomic radius, which is an indication of the size of an atom. The nucleus is tiny, so the size of the atom is really the space occupied by the electron cloud surrounding the nucleus. To the right is a view of a boron atom showing a unique color for each orbital containing electrons. The cloud of electrons created by the overlapping 1s, 2s, and 2p orbitals is what gives a boron atom its size. Here is another version of the table showing which orbitals are the last to be filled as the electrons fill up around an atom s nucleus. Atomic radii match orbital sizes Compare the table above with the chart to the right. Each time you start a new row, the atom gets bigger because you start filling a new primary energy level with bigger orbitals. As you go across a row, atoms get smaller because the increased number of protons pulls electrons at the same primary level closer to the nucleus. 176 A NATURAL APPROACH TO CHEMISTRY

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