Contributions of Social Capital Theory in Predicting Collective Action Behavior among Livestock Keeping Communities in Kenya

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1 Contrbutons of Socal Captal Thory n Prdctng Collctv Acton Bhavor among Lvstock Kpng Communts n Knya Emly Ouma * and Awudu Abdula 2 Intrnatonal Insttut of Tropcal Agrcultur, c/o ISABU, Bujumbura B.P. 795 Burund. 2 Dpartmnt of Food Economcs and Consumpton Studs, Unvrsty of Kl, Grmany. Contrbutd Papr prpard for prsntaton at th Intrnatonal Assocaton of Agrcultural Economsts Confrnc, Bjng, Chna, August 6-22, 2009 Copyrght 2009 by Emly Ouma and Awudu Abdula. All rghts rsrvd. Radrs may mak vrbatm cops of ths documnt for non-commrcal purposs by any mans, provdd that ths copyrght notc appars on all such cops. * Corrspondng author Emal addrsss:.a.ouma@cgar.org and aabdula@food-con.un-kl.d

2 Abstract Socal captal and collctv acton ntatvs provd mportant avnus for accss and uptak of mprovd lvstock tchnologs through communal brdng programs among rsourc poor communts n dvlopng countrs. Ths study xamns th factors that nflunc collctv acton bhavor n crop-lvstock and pastoralst producton systms n Knya by mployng a bnary logt modl. Th rsults show that ag, gndr of houshold mmbrs and ducaton lvl of th houshold had xrt sgnfcant nflunc on th dcson to tak up collctv acton. In addton, walthy housholds ar lss lkly to partcpat n collctv acton ntatvs compard to th rsourc constrand. Ths rsults suggst that polcs that ncourag group formaton may b ffctv n targtng mprovmnt n lvlhoods of poor populatons through accss to mprovd lvstock. Kywords: collctv acton; communal brd mprovmnt programs; bnary logt 2

3 . Introducton Socal captal has ncrasngly gand rcognton n many aspcts of agrcultur, natural rsourc managmnt and rural dvlopmnt n dvlopng countrs du to ts prcvd postv consquncs for dvlopmnt and opportunty for thos who lack posssson of and accss to fnancal, human or natural captal. Socal captal thory provds a usful framwork for xplanng socal connctons or rlatonshps that can gnrat collctv acton advantagous to a group (Mnzn-Dck t al., 2004). Past studs such as Mancn t al (2007) hav shown th mportanc of collctv acton for th succssful uptak of tchnologs for whch coopraton s a prrqust, such as ntgratd pst and dsas managmnt. Ths study dscusss th potntals of collctv acton ntatvs n accss and uptak of mprovd lvstock brds n a dvlopng country contxt. Brd mprovmnt programs that utlz advancd brdng tchnology provd sustanabl and vabl pathways for mprovng lvstock productvty partcularly n Sub-Saharan Afrca whr productvty rmans low compard to th rst of th world (Ott and Chlonda, 2002). Prvous studs such as Wollny (2003) hav dntfd communty basd lvstock brdng ntatvs as potntally sustanabl pathways for poor lvstock kprs to accss mprovd lvstock, whthr from nuclus brdng hrds from onstaton brds or xstng brds n vllag hrds for vllag basd brdng schms. Altrnatv accss pathways such as artfcal nsmnaton usng smn from supror brdng bulls from nuclus hrds s oftn nfasbl n dvlopng countrs du to th rmotnss of rural communts and nadquat nfrastructur such as lctrcty, ncssary for storng smn n lqud ntrogn. Th opton of purchasng brdng bulls or prgnant hfrs Socal captal has bn dfnd by Putnam (995) as faturs of socal lf - ntworks, norms, and trust - that nabl partcpants to act togthr mor ffctvly to pursu shard objctvs. 3

4 whch hav bn nsmnatd wth smn from supror brdng bulls may b lmtd to only a fw lvstock kprs who can afford t, lockng out th mor rsourc-constrand lvstock kprs. Although collctv acton ntatvs hav potntally hgh contrbuton to mprovd lvstock accss, ltratur on factors that nflunc an ndvdual s choc to tak up collctv acton dcson s rlatvly thn. Such nformaton would b usful n dvlopng approprat ntrvntons to nabl facltaton and succss of collctv acton ntatvs. Ths study contrbuts by nvstgatng factors that nflunc collctv acton n crop-lvstock and pastoralst producton systms n Knya. Th rst of th papr s organzd as follows; Scton 2 dscusss th framwork and mprcal formulaton of th collctv acton modl. Scton 3 prsnts a dscrpton of th survy data. Emprcal rsults for th collctv acton modl ar prsntd and dscussd n scton 4 whl scton 5 prsnts concludng rmarks. 2. Framwork for Collctv Acton and Emprcal Modl Th thory of collctv acton s basd on th nsttutonal approach to th soluton of soctal problms and s thus concrnd wth th condtons undr whch groups of popl wth a common ntrst wll prcv that ntrst and act on t (Clagu, 997). Th foundatonal work on collctv acton n th conomc sns was by Olson (965). Collctv acton oftn lads to craton of popls organzatons, commonly rfrrd to as groups whch brng togthr ndvduals wth common problms and aspratons and who cannot, as ndvduals, mt crtan goals as ffctvly, f at all. By poolng thr captal, labor and othr rsourcs, mmbrs ar abl to accss crtan rsourcs or carry out proftabl actvts, whch f undrtakn by ndvduals alon, would nvolv gratr rsk and ffort. Ths mpls that group mmbrs hav a common objctv and mans to achv thos objctvs. In th contxt of communal lvstock brdng programs, a brdng bull from a nuclus hrd may b purchasd by a group for us wthn th group on a rotatonal bass. Th brdng bull thn bcoms a collctv good. A collctv good 4

5 s non-xcludabl; thrfor f t s provdd to on mmbr of th group, t cannot b wthhld from any othr mmbr. Any attmpt to acqur ths good s consdrd collctv acton. If only a fw mmbrs of th group pay for th collctv good, yt t s provdd to th whol group, thn th fr-rdr problm dvlops. Th fr-rdr problm can b ovrcom through pr prssur from th group mmbrs and by havng smallr group szs. Th classc study by Olson (965) suggsts that collctv acton s mor dffcult to organz n largr groups rlatv to smallr ons. Th concpt of socal captal s closly rlatd to collctv acton, and s oftn takn as an ndcator of capacty for collctv acton. As such, mprcal rsarch usually ncorporats both concpts whn analyzng collctv acton. Socal captal has bn dscrbd as a combnaton of ntworks of ndvduals and sts of collctv norms mbddd n thos ntworks (Ostrom t al., 994). It dals wth rlatons of trust, rcprocty and xchangs, common ruls, norms and sanctons, as wll as ntworks and groups, whch ar mportant mchansms for buldng socal captal assts (Mnzn-Dck t al., 2004). Such socal ts ar commonly vwd as mportant assts, a form of captal at par wth physcal, fnancal, human and poltcal captal, and a potntal nstrumnt for buldng th othr forms of captal. Svral studs such as Ramos-Pnto (2006) hav shown that socal captal facltats collctv acton. Elmnts of socal captal hav potntals to mak collctv acton mor or lss lkly. For nstanc, th dgr to whch clos ntractons or ntworks that charactrzs a group can mak coopraton mor lkly. Th collctv acton and socal captal concpts hav bn appld n a fw conomc studs such as Fuj t al. (2005) to analyz th factors nfluncng succssful collctv acton at ndvdual and group lvl. Fr rdrs ar conomc agnts who bnft from or consum a good but do not contrbut to ts provson. 5

6 An ndvdual dcson makr maks a choc dcson whthr to partcpat n a collctv acton ntatv or not. Though chocs ar mad undr condtons of uncrtanty, n ths study, th dcson makr s assumd to b rsk nutral and ams at maxmzng xpctd utlty of profts. Th dcson makr s assumd to wgh up th xpctd utlty of profts from th collctv good or srvc through partcpaton n a collctv acton ntatv, rprsntd as P N E[ U ( π )] and th xpctd utlty of profts from non-partcpaton, rprsntd as E[ U ( π )]. Th dcson to partcpat n a collctv acton ntatv occurs whn: P N E[ U ( π )] E[ U ( π )] > 0 () Whr, P E[ U ( π )] = U[ E( PQ(, Z N and E[ U ( π )] = U[ E( PQ( P P ) W N, Z N P P ) W )] N N )] (2) E s th xpctaton oprator gvn th constrants facng th dcson makr, P s th output prc, Q s th xpctd output lvl, s a column vctor of nput quantts, W s a column vctor of th nput prcs and costs assocatd wth th collctv acton such as fnancal contrbutons and transport costs to attnd group mtngs n cas of W P, and Z s a vctor of houshold and othr sococonomc charactrstcs. Th ndvdual s xpctd utlty of profts assocatd wth partcpaton and non-partcpaton n collctv acton as prsntd n quaton (2) s unobsrvd and can b rprsntd by th latnt varabl for th dcson makr to partcpat n a collctv acton ntatv: * Y whch dfns th propnsty Y P = E[ U ( π )] E[ U ( π )] (3) * N * Y s unobsrvabl to th analyst. What s obsrvd s whthr a dcson makr partcpats n a collctv acton ntatv or not. Ths can b prsntd as Y and s lnkd to Y * as follows; 6

7 Y and Y = f Y = 0 f Y * * > 0, 0. (4) Whn Y * > 0, th dcson makr dcds to partcpat n collctv acton and Y = s obsrvd. Othrws, f Y * 0 th dcson makr dcds not to partcpat n collctv acton and Y = 0 s obsrvd. For an ndvdual dcson makr, th latnt varabl * Y s assumd to b rlatd to obsrvd charactrstcs through a structural modl as follows (Grn, 2003): Y * = +, ( =, K, N) (5) Whr s a vctor of houshold and othr sococonomc charactrstcs, s a coffcnt vctor, and s a random dsturbanc trm. From quatons (4) and (5), th probablty of a dcson makr, to partcpat n a collctv acton ntatv s gvn by th followng probablty modl: Pr[ Y = ] = Pr[ Y = Pr[ = F( = F( ) * > 0] + > 0] ) (6) Whr Pr[.] s a probablty functon and F(.) s th cumulatv dstrbuton functon. Th xact dstrbuton of F dpnds on th dstrbuton of th rror trm. If s dstrbutd as a logstc random varabl, thn th logt statstcal modl rsults. In ths study, th bnary choc modl for partcpaton n a collctv acton ntatv has bn stmatd usng a logt modl. Th cumulatv dstrbuton functon n quaton (6) can thus b prsntd as a logstc dstrbuton; F( ) = = Λ( ) + (7) 7

8 8 Whr (.) Λ rprsnts th logstc cumulatv dstrbuton functon. Th log-lklhood functon for a sampl of ndpndnt obsrvatons s thn prsntd as; { } { } = = = = = = = = Λ + Λ = 0 ; ; log log ) log ( log )) ( ) log( ( )) ( log( )) ( log( y y n n n n y y y y L (8) Th paramtrs of th logt modl ar stmatd by maxmum lklhood mthods. 3. Data Dscrpton Th data st for th bnary logt stmaton s from a rcnt survy of 304 housholds n Suba and Narok dstrcts of Knya rprsntng crop-lvstock and pastoral systms, rspctvly. A purposv random sampl was mployd to slct cattl kpng housholds n th two dstrcts. Th survy was admnstrd through qustonnar ntrvws by local numrators who wr trand pror to th xrcs whch took plac btwn August and Dcmbr Th qustonnar was dvlopd n collaboraton wth partnrs from th Intrnatonal Lvstock Rsarch Insttut and Swss Fdral Insttut of Tchnology. It covrd vard nformaton ncludng houshold dmographcs, mmbrshp to groups, group actvts and bnfts. Th dpndnt varabl n th bnary logt modl s mmbrshp to a wlfar group. Forty prcnt of th survyd housholds ar mmbrs of at last on wlfar group, som of whch ar nformal, unrgstrd organzatons. Fgur prsnts th proporton of housholds who ar mmbrs of varous typs of wlfar groups.

9 3% 4% 27% 35% Coopratv socty Womn group Mcro Fnanc Insttuton Famly wlfar group Farmr group Othrs 29% 2% Fgur : Mmbrshp to dffrnt typs of wlfar groups Thrty fv prcnt of th housholds ar mmbrs of womn groups whl 27% blong to farmr groups. Th srvcs obtand from womn groups ar manly agrcultural xtnson advc and rotatonal savngs whl th farmr groups provd poold farm labor srvcs such as wdng and harvstng on a rotatonal bass. In Knya, womn group formaton has bn ncouragd as a mans of mprovng rural lvlhoods through ncom gnraton and nformal crdt accss. Twnty nn prcnt of th wlfar group mmbr housholds blong to famly wlfar groups. Th srvcs obtand from such groups nclud rotatonal purchass of ncom-gnratng qupmnts such as b hvs and mrgncy assstanc of mmbrs to offst hosptal and funral blls. Tabl prsnts dscrptv statstcs for ndpndnt varabls usd n th mprcal analyss. Th mans and standard dvatons ar prsntd sparatly for housholds who partcpatd n collctv acton through wlfar group mmbrshp and thos who dd not partcpat n any collctv acton ntatv. 9

10 Tabl : Dscrptv statstcs basd on wlfar group mmbrshp Varabl Mmbr of a wlfar group (n =23) Non-mmbr of a wlfar group (n =8) Man S. D. Man S. D. Ag of houshold had (yars) Gndr of houshold had ( = mal, othrws) Yars of ducaton of houshold had Numbr of adult fmal houshold mmbrs (abov 8 yars old) Human populaton dnsty (wthn a Km radus) Accss to off-farm ncom ( = ys, othrws) Tnur systm of ownd land ( = wth ttl dd, 0 othrws) Cattl hrd sz Dstanc to th narst markt (Km) Travl tm to th narst larg urban cntr * (Hrs) Narok dstrct (, f houshold s locatd n Narok dstrct, 0 othrws) Sourc: Survy data * Th urban aras ar dfnd on th bass of populaton dnsts, that s, populaton dnsts of mor than 250 popl km -2 Th ndpndnt varabls usd nclud farm and houshold charactrstcs, gographc locaton and markt accss varabls. Houshold charactrstcs nclud accss to off - farm ncom, ag, gndr and ducaton of th houshold had as wll as numbr of adult fmal houshold mmbrs. Th avrag ag of th houshold had dffrs sgnfcantly btwn 0

11 mmbrs and non-mmbrs of wlfar groups, wth an avrag of 56 and 46 yars for th mmbr and non-mmbr housholds of wlfar groups rspctvly (p<0.0). Th proporton of mal hads of housholds n th sampl populaton s an avrag of 80% and dos not dffr sgnfcantly btwn mmbrs and non-mmbrs of wlfar groups. Th avrag numbr of ducaton yars for hads of housholds dffrs sgnfcantly btwn mmbr and non-mmbr housholds of wlfar groups at p<0.0. For housholds who ar mmbrs of wlfar groups, th avrag numbr of ducaton yars s 8. yars compard to 4.7 yars for non-mmbrs of wlfar groups. Educaton nhancs th ablty of an ndvdual to prcv and concptualz th ffcts of collctv acton, thus prmttng a crtcal valuaton and trad-offs of th costs, whch may b n trms of both tm and mony, and gans from a collctv good through collctv acton. In addton, ducaton nfluncs th dpth and rchnss of socal ntworks and producs sklls n rlatng to othrs and ffctv contrbutons to group dvlopmnts. If ths hypothss s tru, thn houshold hads who hav mor schoolng wll hav a hghr probablty of bng mmbrs of organzatons such as communty wlfar groups. Prsnc of an adult fmal n th houshold s hypothszd to ncras th probablty of mmbrshp to a wlfar group. Mor than a quartr of th sampl housholds who ar mmbrs of wlfar groups actually blong to womn groups. Most womn n th rural aras of Afrca hav a tndncy to organz thmslvs nto wlfar groups to mt thr fnancal and matral oblgatons, spcally n th absnc of a stabl ncom. Tabl ndcats th avrag numbr of adult fmal mmbrs to b.8 for housholds who ar mmbrs of som wlfar group and.5 for th non-wlfar group mmbrs. Mmbrshp to wlfar groups may also b nfluncd by th ntnsty of socal ntractons as thy rnforc trust, an mportant aspct of socal captal. Trust plays an mportant part n th formaton of rlatonshps and s ssntal to transactons that ar not fully controlld

12 by thr lgal constrants of contracts or th conomc forcs of markts. Th human populaton dnsty varabl has bn ncludd as an ndpndnt varabl to proxy th ntnsty of socal ntractons. It s xpctd that socal ntractons among popl tnd to b mor ntns f thy ar concntratd wthn a smallr ara (Fuj t al., 2005). Th avrag human populaton dnsty varabl s sgnfcantly dffrnt btwn th mmbr and non-mmbr housholds of wlfar groups at p<0.0. Th varabl s strongly corrlatd wth th typ of producton systm, wth a postv corrlaton for crop-lvstock systm whch s prdomnant n Suba dstrct and a ngatv corrlaton for th pastoral systm common n Narok dstrct. Th hamlts, whr th pastoral communts lv ar gnrally sparsly dstrbutd n comparson to th crop-lvstock farmrs. Accss to off - farm ncom and othr farm charactrstc varabls such as scurty of tnur of land ownd and cattl hrd sz ar usd as walth ndcators. Th avrag valus of ths varabls dffr btwn th mmbr and non-mmbr housholds of wlfar groups as ndcatd n tabl. Lowr man valus ar rportd for housholds who ar mmbrs of wlfar groups, mplyng that housholds that ar mmbrs of wlfar groups may b rsourc constrand and thrfor hav ncntvs to jon wlfar groups n ordr to mprov thr condtons. On th othr hand, walthy housholds wth accss to off-farm ncom and scurty of tnur of land may hav altrnatv channls to mt thr nds and may not hav th ncntvs to jon th communal wlfar groups. Land tnur scurty n th form of ndvdual proprty rghts nfluncs accss to formal or nformal crdt snc land s oftn usd as collatral. Markt accss may also nflunc th houshold s dcson to undrtak collctv acton. Dstanc to th narst markt and tm takn to rach th narst larg urban cntr hav bn usd as masurs of markt accss. Th avrag dstanc to th narst markt s about 3 Km and dos not dffr sgnfcantly btwn mmbrs of wlfar groups and non-mmbrs. Convrsly, 2

13 avrag tm takn to rach th narst larg urban cntr dffrs sgnfcantly btwn mmbr housholds of wlfar groups and non-mmbrs at p<0.0. Ths may b attrbutd to th poor road nfrastructur common n most rural aras of Afrca. Th ffct of markt accss on partcpaton n collctv acton ntatvs has bn wdly dbatd. On th on hand a ngatv rlatonshp btwn markt dstanc and partcpaton may b xpctd snc aras closr to th markt may hav lowr costs for ntracton wth th govrnmnt for purposs of rgstrng a socty and for makng thr dmands hard (Mnzn-Dck t al., 2004). Howvr, Fuj t al. (2005), not that n rural communts wth lttl xposur to urban markt actvts, mmbrs xpct to contnu thr ntracton ndfntly, and hnc hav ncntvs to cooprat. Accss to markts oftn dcrass ths ntrdpndnc, and thrfor mght rduc th lklhood of collctv acton. 4. Emprcal Rsults Tabl 2 prsnts th maxmum lklhood paramtr stmats and margnal ffcts of th bnary logt modl for mmbrshp to wlfar groups. Th modl was stmatd usng LIMDEP Economtrc softwar vrson 8.0 statstcal packag. Th McFaddn s R 2 valu of shows a modratly good ft. Th stmatd coffcnts hav th xpctd sgns though th markt accss varabls, gndr of th houshold had and cattl hrd sz ar not statstcally sgnfcant. Th coffcnt on human populaton dnsty has th xpctd postv sgn and s statstcally sgnfcant at th 5% lvl. Ths rsult s consstnt wth th hypothss that a hgh human populaton dnsty strngthns socal ntractons as a bass for organzng collctv acton. Ths fndng s smlar to that found by Fuj t al. (2005) n thr study on collctv acton n th Phlppns. Th ndpndnt varabls ncludd n th modl may not b xhaustv. Othr varabls such as group charactrstcs and polcy factors (govrnmnt rgulatons for groups) could also hav sgnfcant nfluncs but wr not capturd durng th survys. 3

14 Tabl 2: Bnary logt modl rsults for wlfar group mmbrshp Varabl Coffcnt Standard Error Constant Margnal Effcts Human populaton dnsty ** Accss to off-farm ncom * Ag of houshold had *** Yars of formal ducaton of houshold had ** Numbr of adult fmal houshold mmbrs * Dstanc to th narst markt (Km) Travl tm takn to th narst larg urban cntr Tnur systm of ownd land ( = wth ttl dd, 0 othrws) Gndr of houshold had (=mal, 0 othrws) *** Cattl hrd sz Narok (= Narok dstrct, 0 othrws) * Narok*Human populaton dnsty *** McFaddn R 2 = - L Ω /L ω.366 Log lklhood functon Corrct prdctons 77.2% N 304 Not: ***, **, * ndcat that coffcnts ar statstcally sgnfcant at th, 5 and 0 % lvls, rspctvly, usng P-valus n maxmum lklhood stmaton. Th coffcnts on ducaton lvl and ag of th houshold had ar also postv and statstcally sgnfcant as xpctd, ndcatng that mor ducatd and oldr hads of housholds ar mor lkly to b mmbrs of wlfar groups. Th postv ffct of ag on lklhood of collctv acton partcpaton may rsult from xprnc and rpatd transactons btwn partnrs n a group whch n turn rnforcs trust and socal captal. Sakura (2002) also fnds a 4

15 postv rlatonshp btwn ducaton lvl and mmbrshp to wlfar groups. Oldr hads of housholds may hav no altrnatv accss to montary rsourcs spcally as thy may hav rtrd from formal mploymnt and may not hav accss to socal wlfar bnfts. Consquntly, th wlfar groups may b mportant avnus for mtng thr nds and cushonng aganst shocks. Smlarly, th coffcnt on numbr of fmal adult houshold mmbrs s postv and sgnfcant at th 0% lvl, ndcatng a hghr probablty of mmbrshp to wlfar groups for housholds wth fmal adult mmbrs. Th coffcnts on accss to off - farm ncom and tnur systm of ownd land, hav th xpctd ngatv sgn and ar statstcally sgnfcant at th 0% and % lvls, rspctvly. Ths ndcats that th probablty of bng a mmbr of a wlfar group s lowr for housholds wth accss to off-farm ncom rlatv to housholds wthout off-farm ncom. Th margnal ffct of off-farm ncom ndcats that accss to off farm ncom rducs th lklhood of bng a mmbr of a wlfar group by a substantal 5%. Smlarly, th probablty of bng a wlfar group mmbr s lowr for housholds wth scurty of land tnur n th form of ttl dds rlatv to thos wthout tnur scurty. Ths rsults mply that housholds who ar walthy ar lss lkly to b mmbrs of wlfar groups compard to thr walth constrand countrparts. Th dummy varabl coffcnt for Narok dstrct s ngatv and statstcally sgnfcant at th 0% lvl. Ths fndng ndcats a lowr probablty of housholds n Narok dstrct rlatv to Suba dstrct to b mmbrs of a wlfar group. Ths s probably bcaus th dstrct s domnatd by pastoralst housholds makng t dffcult to partcpat n collctv acton du to frqunt moblty. 5

16 5. Conclusons and Implcatons Gvn th mportant rol of communal basd lvstock brdng programs for lvstock kprs to accss mprovd lvstock n dvlopng countrs, ths study contrbuts to an undrstandng of factors that dtrmn collctv acton bhavor among lvstock kpng housholds n Knya. Th bnary logt rsults rval a numbr of ponts of ntrst for polcy makrs and lvstock dvlopmnt agnts. Th analyss ndcats a strong rlatonshp btwn som soco-conomc varabls and partcpaton n collctv acton ntatvs. Of ntrst s th fndng that housholds that ar walth or rsourc constrand ar mor lkly to partcpat n collctv acton ntatvs rlatv to thos that ar rsourc ndowd. Ths suggsts that polcs that ncourag group formaton may b ffctv n targtng mprovmnt n lvlhoods of poor populatons through accss to mprovd lvstock. Rsourc poor lvstock kprs may form brdng groups that act as multplrs whch rcv bulls of provn gntc mrt from a nuclus hrd for rotatonal matng among hrds of group mmbrs. Th provn bulls could b obtand through purchass from montary contrbutons of group mmbrs or through altrnatv paymnts n th form of offsprngs from th provn bulls. As argud by Wollny (2003), th succss of such groups dpnd on support of othr ntgral sound managmnt practcs such as halth car, fdng, rproducton and housng n ordr to mnmz mortalty and rproducton losss. Human populaton dnsts also appar to b postv and sgnfcant n nfluncng collctv acton. Ths mpls that communal lvstock brdng programs may b asy to organz for sdntary lvstock kprs such as thos n mxd crop-lvstock systms whr human populaton dnsts ar hgh and socal ntractons strong. Howvr, t may b dffcult to organz for pastoral systms du to th hgh lvl of moblty of pastoralsts as thy sarch for 6

17 watr and pastur wth changng sasons. Van dr Waaj (200) suggsts that for such systms, cattl kprs ought to ndvdually purchas th mprovd cattl for upgradng thr own. Snc artfcal nsmnaton may not b fasbl n such aras, purchass may b n th form of prgnant hfrs or provn bulls. Rfrncs Clagu, C. (997). Insttutons and Economc Dvlopmnt: Growth and Govrnanc n Lss- Dvlopd and Post-Socalst Countrs. Th Johns Hopkns Unvrsty Prss, Baltmor and London. Fuj, M., Y. Hayam, and M. Kkuch (2005). Th Condtons of Collctv Acton for Local Commons Managmnt: Th Cas of Irrgaton n th Phlppns. Agrcultural Economcs, 33(2): Grn, W. (2003). Economtrc Analyss. 5 th d. Prntc hall, Nw Jrsy. Mancn, F., Van Bruggn, A.H. and Jggns, J.L.S. (2007). Evaluatng Cotton Intgratd Pst Managmnt (IPM) Farmr Fld School Outcoms usng th Sustanabl Lvlhoods Approach n Inda. Exprmntal Agrcultur, 43: Mnzn-Dck, R., M. DGrgoro, and N. McCarthy (2004). Mthods for Studyng Collctv Acton n Rural Dvlopmnt. Agrcultural Systms, 82 (3): Olson, M. (965, 97). Th Logc of Collctv Acton: Publc Goods and th Thory of Groups. Rvsd Edton, Harvard Unvrsty Prss. Ostrom, E., R. Gardnr, and J. Walkr (994). Ruls, Gams and Common-Pool Rsourcs. Unvrsty of Mchgan Prss, Ann Arbor, MI. Ott, J. and P. Chlonda (2002). Cattl and Small Rumnant Producton Systms n Sub-Saharan Afrca: A Systmatc Rvw, FAO, Rom. pp 3. Putnam R Bowlng Alon: Amrca's Dclnng Socal Captal Journal of Dmocracy 6 ()

18 Ramos-Pnto, P. (2006). Socal Captal as a Capacty for Collctv Acton, n R. Edwards, J. Frankln and J. Holland (Eds) Assssng Socal Captal: Concpt, Polcy, Practc, Cambrdg Scholars Prss. Sakura, T. (2002). Quanttatv Analyss of Collctv Acton: Mthodology and Challngs. Papr Prsntd at a CAPR Workshop on Collctv Acton, on 25-28th Fbruary 2002 n Narob, Knya. Van dr Waaj, L. (200). Brdng for Trypanotolranc n Afrcan Cattl. Ph.D. Thss, Wagnngn Agrcultural Unvrsty, Th Nthrlands. Wollny, C. B. A. (2003). Th Nd to Consrv Farm Anmal Gntc Rsourcs n Afrca: Should Polcy Makrs b Concrnd? Ecologcal Economcs, 45(3):