Chapter 9. Covalent Bonding: Orbitals
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1 Chapter 9 Covalent Bonding: Orbitals
2 Chapter 9 Table of Contents 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model 9.2 The Molecular Orbital Model 9.3 Bonding in Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules 9.4 Bonding in Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules 9.5 Combining the Localized Electron and Molecular Orbital Models Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 2
3 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model Exercise Draw the Lewis structure for methane, CH 4. What is the shape of a methane molecule? tetrahedral What are the bond angles? o H H C H H Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 3
4 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model Concept Check What is the valence electron configuration of a carbon atom? s 2 p 2 Why can t the bonding orbitals for methane be formed by an overlap of atomic orbitals? Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 4
5 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model Bonding in Methane Assume that the carbon atom has four equivalent atomic orbitals, arranged tetrahedrally. Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 5
6 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model Hybridization Mixing of the native atomic orbitals to form special orbitals for bonding. Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 6
7 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model sp 3 Hybridization Combination of one s and three p orbitals. Whenever a set of equivalent tetrahedral atomic orbitals is required by an atom, the localized electron model assumes that the atom adopts a set of sp 3 orbitals; the atom becomes sp 3 hybridized. Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 7
8 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model An Energy-Level Diagram Showing the Formation of Four sp 3 Orbitals Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 8
9 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model The Formation of sp 3 Hybrid Orbitals Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 9
10 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model Tetrahedral Set of Four sp 3 Orbitals Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 10
11 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model Exercise Draw the Lewis structure for C 2 H 4 (ethylene)? What is the shape of an ethylene molecule? trigonal planar around each carbon atom What are the approximate bond angles around the carbon atoms? 120 o H H C C H H Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 11
12 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model Concept Check Why can t sp 3 hybridization account for the ethylene molecule? Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 12
13 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model sp 2 Hybridization Combination of one s and two p orbitals. Gives a trigonal planar arrangement of atomic orbitals. One p orbital is not used. Oriented perpendicular to the plane of the sp 2 orbitals. Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 13
14 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model Sigma ( ) Bond Electron pair is shared in an area centered on a line running between the atoms. Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 14
15 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model Pi ( ) Bond Forms double and triple bonds by sharing electron pair(s) in the space above and below the σ bond. Uses the unhybridized p orbitals. Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 15
16 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model An Orbital Energy-Level Diagram for sp 2 Hybridization Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 16
17 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model The Hybridization of the s, p x, and p y Atomic Orbitals Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 17
18 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model Formation of C=C Double Bond in Ethylene Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 18
19 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model Exercise Draw the Lewis structure for CO 2. What is the shape of a carbon dioxide molecule? linear What are the bond angles? 180 o O C O Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 19
20 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model sp Hybridization Combination of one s and one p orbital. Gives a linear arrangement of atomic orbitals. Two p orbitals are not used. Needed to form the bonds. Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 20
21 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model The Orbital Energy-Level Diagram for the Formation of sp Hybrid Orbitals on Carbon Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 21
22 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model When One s Orbital and One p Orbital are Hybridized, a Set of Two sp Orbitals Oriented at 180 Degrees Results Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 22
23 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model The Orbitals for CO 2 Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 23
24 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model Exercise Draw the Lewis structure for PCl 5. What is the shape of a phosphorus pentachloride molecule? trigonal bipyramidal What are the bond angles? Cl 90 o and 120 o Cl P Cl Cl Cl Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 24
25 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model dsp 3 Hybridization Combination of one d, one s, and three p orbitals. Gives a trigonal bipyramidal arrangement of five equivalent hybrid orbitals. Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 25
26 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model The Orbitals Used to Form the Bonds in PCl 5 Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 26
27 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model Exercise Draw the Lewis structure for XeF 4. What is the shape of a xenon tetrafluoride molecule? octahedral What are the bond angles? 90 o and 180 o F Xe F F F Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 27
28 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model d 2 sp 3 Hybridization Combination of two d, one s, and three p orbitals. Gives an octahedral arrangement of six equivalent hybrid orbitals. Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 28
29 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model How is the Xenon Atom in XeF 4 Hybridized? Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 29
30 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model Concept Check Draw the Lewis structure for HCN. Which hybrid orbitals are used? Draw HCN: Showing all bonds between atoms. Labeling each bond as or. Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 30
31 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model Concept Check Determine the bond angle and expected hybridization of the central atom for each of the following molecules: NH 3 SO 2 KrF 2 CO 2 ICl 5 NH o, sp 3 SO o, sp 2 KrF 2 90 o, 120 o, dsp 3 CO o, sp ICl 5 90 o, 180 o, d 2 sp 3 Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 31
32 Section 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model Using the Localized Electron Model Draw the Lewis structure(s). Determine the arrangement of electron pairs using the VSEPR model. Specify the hybrid orbitals needed to accommodate the electron pairs. Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 32
33 Section 9.2 The Molecular Orbital Model Regards a molecule as a collection of nuclei and electrons, where the electrons are assumed to occupy orbitals much as they do in atoms, but having the orbitals extend over the entire molecule. The electrons are assumed to be delocalized rather than always located between a given pair of atoms. Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 33
34 Section 9.2 The Molecular Orbital Model The electron probability of both molecular orbitals is centered along the line passing through the two nuclei. Sigma (σ) molecular orbitals (MOs) In the molecule only the molecular orbitals are available for occupation by electrons. Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 34
35 Section 9.2 The Molecular Orbital Model Combination of Hydrogen 1s Atomic Orbitals to form MOs Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 35
36 Section 9.2 The Molecular Orbital Model MO 1 is lower in energy than the s orbitals of free atoms, while MO 2 is higher in energy than the s orbitals. Bonding molecular orbital lower in energy Antibonding molecular orbital higher in energy Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 36
37 Section 9.2 The Molecular Orbital Model MO Energy-Level Diagram for the H 2 Molecule Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 37
38 Section 9.2 The Molecular Orbital Model The molecular orbital model produces electron distributions and energies that agree with our basic ideas of bonding. The labels on molecular orbitals indicate their symmetry (shape), the parent atomic orbitals, and whether they are bonding or antibonding. Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 38
39 Section 9.2 The Molecular Orbital Model Molecular electron configurations can be written similar to atomic electron configurations. Each molecular orbital can hold 2 electrons with opposite spins. The number of orbitals are conserved. Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 39
40 Section 9.2 The Molecular Orbital Model Bonding in H 2 Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 40
41 Section 9.2 The Molecular Orbital Model Sigma Bonding and Antibonding Orbitals Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 41
42 Section 9.2 The Molecular Orbital Model Bond Order Larger bond order means greater bond strength. Bond order = # of bonding e # of antibonding e 2 Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 42
43 Section 9.2 The Molecular Orbital Model Example: H Bond order = = 1 2 Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 43
44 Section 9.2 The Molecular Orbital Model Example: H Bond order = = 2 2 Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 44
45 Section 9.3 Bonding in Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules Composed of 2 identical atoms. Only the valence orbitals of the atoms contribute significantly to the molecular orbitals of a particular molecule. Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 45
46 Section 9.3 Bonding in Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules Pi Bonding and Antibonding Orbitals Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 46
47 Section 9.3 Bonding in Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules Paramagnetism Paramagnetism substance is attracted into the inducing magnetic field. Unpaired electrons (O 2 ) Diamagnetism substance is repelled from the inducing magnetic field. Paired electrons (N 2 ) Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 47
48 Section 9.3 Bonding in Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules Apparatus Used to Measure the Paramagnetism of a Sample Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 48
49 Section 9.3 Bonding in Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules Molecular Orbital Summary of Second Row Diatomic Molecules Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 49
50 Section 9.4 Bonding in Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules Composed of 2 different atoms. Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 50
51 Section 9.4 Bonding in Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecule: HF The 2p orbital of fluorine is at a lower energy than the 1s orbital of hydrogen because fluorine binds its valence electrons more tightly. Electrons prefer to be closer to the fluorine atom. Thus the 2p electron on a free fluorine atom is at a lower energy than the 1s electron on a free hydrogen atom. Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 51
52 Section 9.4 Bonding in Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules Orbital Energy-Level Diagram for the HF Molecule Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 52
53 Section 9.4 Bonding in Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecule: HF The diagram predicts that the HF molecule should be stable because both electrons are lowered in energy relative to their energy in the free hydrogen and fluorine atoms, which is the driving force for bond formation. Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 53
54 Section 9.4 Bonding in Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules The Electron Probability Distribution in the Bonding Molecular Orbital of the HF Molecule Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 54
55 Section 9.4 Bonding in Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecule: HF The σ molecular orbital containing the bonding electron pair shows greater electron probability close to the fluorine. The electron pair is not shared equally. This causes the fluorine atom to have a slight excess of negative charge and leaves the hydrogen atom partially positive. This is exactly the bond polarity observed for HF. Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 55
56 Section 9.5 Combining the Localized Electron and Molecular Orbital Models Delocalization Describes molecules that require resonance. In molecules that require resonance, it is the bonding that is most clearly delocalized, the bonds are localized. p orbitals perpendicular to the plane of the molecule are used to form molecular orbitals. The electrons in the molecular orbitals are delocalized above and below the plane of the molecule. Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 56
57 Section 9.5 Combining the Localized Electron and Molecular Orbital Models Resonance in Benzene Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 57
58 Section 9.5 Combining the Localized Electron and Molecular Orbital Models The Sigma System for Benzene Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 58
59 Section 9.5 Combining the Localized Electron and Molecular Orbital Models The Pi System for Benzene Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 59
60 Section 9.5 Combining the Localized Electron and Molecular Orbital Models Pi Bonding in the Nitrate Ion Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 60
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