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1 Chemical Bonds Atomic radii increase right to left across the period, and top to bottom down the group pposite is true for ionization energy Covalent bonds are made when difference in electronegativity of the elements is less than 19, ie when ions cannot be formed Covalent bonding gives all atoms apparent octet, ie the configuration of the closest noble gas nly valence electrons are involved Step 1: Find the total number of valence e - by adding up the group numbers of all atoms For ions, adjust the dot count accordingly (subtract e - for cation, add for anion) Step : Assume that the first non-hydrogen atom in the formula of the group is the central atom Connect atoms with single bonds Step 3: Subtract e - for each bond from total #e - to get #e - in lone pairs Step 4: Put in the remaining electrons, two at a time, as lone pairs Start with the terminal atoms, and continue with the central atom if there are any electron pairs left Step 5: Check that each atom has octet satisfied (doublet for ) If not, move electron pair(s) from the adjacent atom to form multiple bonds Step 6 Count the number of electron pairs around the central atom, including lone pairs (ie the steric number, SN) A multiple bond counts as a single electron group Step 7 Pretend the lone pairs are invisible and describe the resulting shape of the molecule C Chapter 11 3 (4 + 3x6 +)e- 4e - C [4 - (3x)]e- 18e - in lone pairs total ctet : C : : : : C : : : SN4, tetrahedral, 1095 o SN3, trigonal planar, 10 o SN, linear, 180 o rule not satisfied for C Three resonance structures possible SN 3, no lone pairs all atoms in a plane, 10 o

2 Behavior of an ideal gas can be totally described by: PV nrt Pressure (P) atmospheres Temperature (T) Kelvin Volume (V) liters Amount of Gas (n) moles Gaseous State Standard temp and pressure (STP) is 1 atm and 0 o C If two parameters are constant, P 1 V 1 P V the relationship simplifies: n 1 T 1 n T P 1 P P 1 P V 1 V n T 1 T etc 1 1 n T T Volume A Mass A Atoms A ne constant parameter: P 1 V 1 P V n 1 Moles A n Moles B Chapter 1 Volume B Mass B Atoms B Conversion factors Volume (L) x 4 L Mass (g) x molar mass (g) # atoms x 60 x 10 3 atoms The total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of the partial pressures exerted by each gases: P total P A + P B + P C + Experimentally determined that of ANY gas occupies 4 L at STP (Avogadro s law) If the mass and volume of the gas at STP are M mrt known, molar mass M is: PV Gas Stoichiometry: 10 g pcx KCl g pc What volume of at STP can you make from 10 g KCl 3 (pc)? KCl 3 KCl + 3 x 3 mol mol KCl 3 x 4 L 7 L g - mol A mol A - mol B mol - Liters B Partial pressure: What is the volume of the dry oxygen if it was collected over water at 3 o C and 760 torr in a 500 ml container? Water vapor pressure at 3 o C is 1 torr Step 1: determine the pressure of dry : P P tot P P 760 torr 1 torr 739 torr V P 1 V 1 P 739 torr x 500 ml 760 torr P torr V ml 486 ml dry P 760 torr V?

3 Liquids have intermediate properties between solids and gases Liquids are almost incompressible, have definite volume and assume the shape of the container Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by a liquid at equilibrium with its liquid Vapor pressure of any gas at the boiling point is equal to the atmospheric pressure Rate of vaporization is proportional to vapor pressure Q fusion (mass) (specheat of fusion) Q vaporization (mass) (specheat of vaporization) Q heating (mass) (specheat) (tempchange) δ- δ+ Liquid State Chapter 13 eating curve for a pure substance Q tot Q fusion + Q heating + Q vaporization ydrogen bond exists if is directly bonded to either N,, or F Very strong intermolecular forces ydrate is a true compound, water is an integral part of it : bond CuS 4 : 5 Copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate Water is unique because it is liquid at room temp, its solid form (ice) has lower density than the liquid, and is an excellent solvent evaporation liquid gas condensation melting solid liquid freezing Temperature is constant during changes of phase

4 Solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances with the same composition throughout, thus the concentration of the substances is the same Consists of solvent (present in greatest amount), and solute(s) Solubility, or the maximum mass of solute in 100 g of solvent, increases with temperature for most solids For gases, solubility increases with P and decreases with T Solution can be saturated, unsaturated, and supersaturated The latter is unstable and precipitates upon disturbance Mass% Vol% Mass/vol% Molarity is the number of moles of solute in 1 L of solution Amount of solute % composition Amount of solution x 100 Molarity (M) Moles of solute 1 L of solution To prepare 1 L of NaCl, measure molar mass of NaCl, add it to a 1L volumetric flask and add water to the mark Solubility of ions in water soluble all Na +, K +, N 4 + all N 3-, C 3 - most S 4, Cl -, Br -, I - Molality (m) is the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent Freezing Point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation depend on molality What is the freezing point (Fp) of solution of 1000 g ethylene glycol (molar mass 605) in 00 g? eg 1000 g eg x 805 m 605 g eg x 1 0 kg mol eg o C kg t f m x K f 805 kg x o C mol eg Fp -15 o C Chapter 14 insoluble most C 3, P 4 3-, -, S (except Na +,K +,N 4+ ) V stock soln M diluted soln x V diluted soln M stock soln To prepare 1 L of NaCl, calculate V stock soln of NaCl, add it to a 1L volumetric flask and add water to 1L t f m x K f t b m x K b Prepare 500 ml of 015 M NaCl using solid NaCl 05 L x 015 mol NaCl x 584 g NaCl 44 g NaCl 1 L soln NaCl Prepare above using stock M soln of 050 M NaCl V 1 V 1 stock M 015 M x 500 ml 05 M 150 ml stock soln 150 ml stock soln ml

5 Acid (Latin acidus - sour): sour taste; turns plant dye litmus red; dissolves metals producing An electrolyte is a solute that dissolves in water and dissociates into ions, yielding a solution that conducts electricity Exceptions: X (X-halide) - polar covalent, produce acids in ; ammonium salts Dissociation constant, K eq, shows how many protons can be obtained from of acid Base - anything that accepts a proton Acid - anything that donates a proton Water autoionization K eq [ 3 + ] x [ - ] [ ] x [ ] K w K eq x [ ] [ 3 + ] x [ - ] p - log [ 3 + ] [ 3 + ] 10 -(p) K w 1 x Ionic Equations Cl(aq) + Na(aq) NaCl(aq) + (l) Electrolytes, Acids and Bases Chapter 15 Base: bitter taste; turns plant dye litmus blue; aqueous solutions feel slippery to touch Ionic compounds are usually metal plus nonmetal or group of nonmetals Find electrolytes from the list: Al(N 3 ) 3, (C 3 ), (N 4 ) S 4, C 3, Br S S 4 - S S 4 + (aq) + Cl - (aq) + Na + (aq) + - (aq) Na + (aq) + Cl - (aq) + (l) + (aq) + - (aq) (l) K eq > 10 x 10 3 K eq 1 x 10 - Strong acids # 3 + Weak acids ydrochloric (Cl) 1 1 ydrofluoric (F) ydrobromic (Br) 1 1 ypochlorous (Cl) ydroiodic (I) 1 1 Acetic (C 3 ) Nitric (N 3 ) 1 Carbonic ( C 3 ) Sulfuric ( S 4 ) 3 Phosphoric ( 3 P 4 ) Buffer, a solution of a weak acid and its conjugate base, maintains p Addition of a strong acid or base to a buffer changes p only slightly spectator ions cancel Formula eq Total ionic eq Net ionic eq

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