HANDBOOK OF ION BEAM PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY
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1 HANDBOOK OF ION BEAM PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY Principles, Deposition, Film Modification and Synthesis Edited by Jerome J. Cuomo and Stephen M. Rossnagel IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center Yorktown Heights, New York Harold R. Kaufman Front Range Research Fort Collins, Colorado and Commonwealth Scientific Corporation Alexandria, Virginia np NOYES PUBLICATIONS Park Ridge, New Jersey, U.S.A.
2 Contents 1. PERSPECTIVE ON PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE USES OF ION BEAM TECHNOLOGY 1 Jerome J. Cuomo, Stephen M. Rossnagel and Harold R. Kaufman 1.1 Introduction Past Technology Present Capabilities Ion Beam Technology Sputtering Phenomena Film Deposition, Modification and Synthesis Future Trends References 5 PARTI ION BEAM TECHNOLOGY 2. GRIDDED BROAD-BEAM ION SOURCES 8 Harold R. Kaufman and Raymond S. Robinson 2.1 Introduction General Description Discharge Chamber Ion Optics Production Applications Target Contamination Concluding Remarks References ELECTRON CYCLOTRON RESONANCE (ECR) ION SOURCES 21 William M. Holber 3.1 Introduction Theory of Operation Types of Sources and Characteristics Etching 30 XI
3 xii Contents 3.5 Deposition References HALL EFFECT ION SOURCES 39 Raymond S. Robinson and Harold R. Kaufman 4.1 Introduction End-Hall Ion Source Operation Ion Acceleration Beam Energy Distribution Beam Current Density Profile Closed Drift Ion Source Operation Ion Acceleration Beam Energy Distribution Beam Current Density Profile Concluding Remarks References IONIZED CLUSTER BEAM (ICB) DEPOSITION AND EPITAXY 58 Isao Yamada and Toshinori Takagi 5.1 Introduction Experiment Principles of ICB Operation Aspects of Film Deposition with ICB Kinetic Energy Range of ICB and Effects of the Kinetic Energy Effects of the Ionic Charge Film Deposition by Reactive ICB Techniques Film Deposition by Simultaneous Use of ICB and Microwave Ion Sources Summary References 75 PART II SPUTTERING PHENOMENA 6. QUANTITATIVE SPUTTERING 78 Peer C. Zalm 6.1 Introduction Total Sputter Yield Considerations Polycrystalline and Amorphous Elemental Targets Predictions from Linear Cascade Theory Exceptions to Predictions from Linear Cascade Theory Ion Effects: The Direct Knock-On Regime Ion Effects: Due to High Fluence Ion Effects: Reactive and Molecular Ions Target Effects: Temperature Target Effects: Single Crystal Targets Target Effects: Multicomponent Materials 87
4 Contents xiii 6.3 Differential Sputter Yield Considerations Angular Distributions of Sputtered Particles Energy Distributions of Sputtered Particles Experimental Considerations for Sputter Yield Measurements Ion Beam Sputtering Target Measurement Techniques Total Sputter Yield Measurements Mass Loss Techniques Probe Techniques Thickness Change Techniques Masking Techniques Optical Methods Thin Film Interface Techniques Other Techniques Differential Yield Measurements: Angular and Energy Distributions Angular Distributions of Ejected Particles Energy Distributions of Ejected Particles Combined Angular- and Energy-Resolved Measurements Concluding Remarks References LASER-INDUCED FLUORESCENCE AS A TOOL FOR THE STUDY OF ION BEAM SPUTTERING 112 Wallis F. Calaway, Charles E. Young, Michael J. Pellin, and Dieter M. Gruen 7.1 Introduction Experimental Technique Summary of Data Sputtering Yields Velocity Distributions Oxide Coverage and Adsorbates Sputtering of Alloys and Nonmetallic Compounds Conclusion References CHARACTERIZATION OF ATOMS DESORBED FROM SURFACES BY ION BOMBARDMENT USING MULTIPHOTON IONIZATION DETECTION 128 David L. Pappas, Nicholas Winograd and Fred M. Kimock 8.1 Introduction Analytical Applications Energy and Angle Measurements Nonresonant Multiphoton Ionization Conclusion References THE APPLICATION OF POSTIONIZATION FOR SPUTTERING STUDIES AND SURFACE OR THIN FILM ANALYSIS 145 Hans Oechsner
5 xiv Contents 9.1 Introduction Postionization Techniques Using Penning Processes Electron Gas Postionization in Low Pressure Plasmas Investigations of the Sputtering Process by Plasma Postionization Electron Gas Postionization for Secondary Neutral Mass Spectrometry SNMS Summary References 165 PART III FILM MODIFICATION AND SYNTHESIS 10. THE MODIFICATION OF FILMS BY ION BOMBARDMENT 170 Eric Kay and Stephen M. Rossnagel 10.1 Introduction Experimental Concerns for Bombardment-Modification of Films Effects on Film Properties by Energetic Bombardment Physical Effects Grain Size Orientation Nucleation Density Defects Lattice Distortion Surface Diffusion Density Epitaxial Temperature Film Stress Surface Topography Implantation of Gas Atoms Optical Properties Resistivity Chemical Effects Stoichiometry Reactive Film Deposition Reactive Ion Beam Deposition Reactive Deposition by Dual Ion Beam Synthesis: A1N Reactive Ion Beam Assisted Evaporation: Cu-O Compounds Optical Films by Ion Beam Assisted Deposition Summary References CONTROL OF FILM PROPERTIES BY ION-ASSISTED DEPOSITION USING BROAD BEAM SOURCES 194 Rönnen A. Roy and Dennis S. Yee 11.1 Introduction Property Changes Ion Energy Effects 194
6 Contents xv Temperature Effects Film Structure Modification Ion Energy Effects Temperature Effects Structure-Property Relations General Discussion of Ion Bombardment Mechanisms Materials and Temperature Effects Property Optimization References ETCHING WITH DIRECTED BEAMS 219 Michael Geis, Stella W. Pang, Nicholas E. Efremow, George A. Lincoln, Gerald D. Johnson and William D. Goodhue 12.1 Introduction Ion Beam Assisted Etching Etching GaAs Etching Diamond Hot Jet Etching Etching Damag Summary References FILM GROWTH MODIFICATION BY CONCURRENT ION BOMBARDMENT: THEORY AND SIMULATION 241 Karl-Heinz Muller 13.1 Introduction Film Microstructure, the Role of Impact Mobility and Substrate Temperature Classification of Film Structure in Terms of Zones The Henderson Model and Zone-1 Structure Thermal Mobility and the Zone-l-Zone-2 Transition Origin of the Zone-2 Structure Ion Bombardment Induced Structural Modifications During Film Growth The Thermal-Spike Approach The Collision-Cascade Approach Redeposition Mechanism Densification Mechanism Critical and Optimum Ion-to-Atom Arrival Rate Ratios Film Orientation The Molecular-Dynamics Approach Vapor Phase Growth Vapor and Sputter Deposition Ion-Assisted Deposition Intrinsic Stress Modification Ion-Beam Deposition Ionized-Cluster-Beam Deposition Conclusions References 274
7 xvi Contents 14. INTERFACE STRUCTURE AND THIN FILM ADHESION 279 John Baglin 14.1 Introduction Factors Affecting Adhesion Ion Beam Techniques Interface Stitching Adhesion Enhancement Examples of Stitching Stitching Mechanisms Contaminant Dispersion Applicability of Stitching Low Energy Ion Sputtering Adhesion Enhancement Adhesion Mechanism Implantation and Adsorption Ion Assisted Deposition Summary References MODIFICATION OF THIN FILMS BY OFF-NORMAL INCIDENCE ION BOMBARDMENT 300 R. Mark Bradley 15.1 Introduction Modification of Crystal Structure by Off-Normal Incidence Ion Bombardment Effect of Bombardment After Deposition Effect of Bombardment During Deposition Topography Changes Induced by Off-Normal Incidence Ion Bombardment Overview Ripple Topography Induced by Off-Normal Incidence Ion Bombardment Summary References ION BEAM INTERACTIONS WITH POLYMER SURFACES 315 Robert C. White and Paul S. Ho 16.1 Introduction High and Medium Energy Ions SIMS Studies of Polymers XPS Studies Summary References TOPOGRAPHY: TEXTURING EFFECTS 338 Bruce A. Banks 17.1 Introduction Ion Beam Sputter Texturing Processes and Effects Natural Texturing Chemically Pure Materials 339
8 Contents xvii Seed Texturing Seed Materials Diffusion Effects Resulting Topographies Shadow Masking Textured Surface Properties Mechanical Electrical Chemical Optical References METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF ION BEAM PROCESSES 362 Stephen M. Rossnagel 18.1 Introduction Ion Beam Sputtering (IBS) Comparison to RF Sputtering Ion Beam Sputter Deposition Ion Beam Assisted Deposition (IBAD) Dual Ion Beam Sputtering (DIBS) Ion Assisted Bombardment: Other Techniques Ionized Cluster Beam Hollow Cathode Magnetron Techniques Summary References ION-ASSISTED DIELECTRIC AND OPTICAL COATINGS 373 Phil J. Martin and Roger P. Netterfield 19.1 Introduction Microstructure of Thin Films Microstructure and Optical Properties Effects of Ion Bombardment on Film Properties Microstructure Adhesion and Stress Compound Synthesis Crystal Structure and Stoichiometry Scattering Optimum Parameters for Ion-Assisted Film Deposition Summary Ion-Assisted Techniques Ion-Assisted Deposition Ion Plating Sputtering Ion Beam Sputtering (IBS) Magnetron Sputtering Ionized Cluster Beam Deposition (ICB) Optical Properties of Ion-Assisted Films Oxides Silicon Dioxide Aluminum Oxide 393
9 xviii Contents Titanium Dioxide Zirconium Dioxide Cerium Dioxide Tantalum Pentoxide Vanadium Dioxide Fluorides Conducting Transparent Films Nitrides Conclusion References DIAMOND AND DIAMOND-LIKE THIN FILMS BY ION BEAM TECHNIQUES 415 Makoto Kitabatake and Kiyotaka Wasa 20.1 Introduction Principle of Diamond Synthesis Conventional Synthesis Synthesis from the Gas Phase Experimental Techniques Diamond-Like Films Characterization Discussion Applications Diamond Particles Characterization Discussion Conclusion References 433 INDEX 435
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