Sputtering by Particle Bombardment

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1 Rainer Behrisch, Wolfgang Eckstein (Eds.) Sputtering by Particle Bombardment Experiments and Computer Calculations from Threshold to MeV Energies With 201 Figures e1 Springer

2 Contents Introduction and Overview Rainer Behrisch and Wolfgang Eckstein 1 1 Overview 1 2 The Sputtering Yield 3 3 Distributions of Sputtered Particles 4 4 Surface Topography 4 5 Sputtering Calculations Analytic Theory Computer Calculations 8 6 Sputtering Measurements 9 7 Applications of Sputtering 11 8 Summary, Conclusions 12 References 12 Index 19 Computer Simulation of the Sputtering Process Wolfgang Eckstein and Herbert M. Urbassek 21 1 Programs Based on the Binary Collision Approximation The Binary Collision The Interaction Potential for BCA The Inelastic (Electronic) Energy Loss The Surface Binding Energy Problems of the Concept of BCA Dynamic Monte Carlo Programs Advantages of BCA Programs 25 2 Programs Based on Molecular Dynamits Physics Input: Forces Interatomic Potentials Electrons Technical Considerations System Size Boundary Conditions Initial State Sputtering Simulation Time 28

3 X Contents 2.3 Reliability 28 References 29 Index 31 Sputtering Yields Wolfgang Eckstein 33 1 Experimental Methods 33 2 Calculational Methods 35 3 Mono-Atomic Targets Energy Dependence of the Sputtering Yield at Normal Incidence Fitting Comparison of Calculated Values with Experimental Data Angle of Incidence Dependence of the Sputtering Yield Threshold Energy of Sputtering Single Crystalline Materials Multicomponent Targets Fluence Dependence Oscillations in the Partial Sputtering Yields Sputtering of Compounds Isotope Sputtering Temperature Dependence of the Sputtering Yield Yield Fluctuations Time Evolution of the Sputtering Yield Conclusions 133 References 171 Index 186 Results of Molecular Dynamits Calculations Herbert M. Urbassek Introduction Linear-Cascade Regime Low-Energy Sputtering Preferential Sputtering Ionic Crystals Effect of Electronic Energy Loss and Electronic Excitations in Atomic Collision Cascades Stopping Excitation High-Energy-Density (Spike) Phenomena Sputtering from Fast-Ion-Induced Tracks Cluster Impact Small Cluster Impact (n < 3) Larger Cluster Impact (n, > 3) Cluster-Induced Surface Smoothing 204

4 Contents XI 6 Cluster Emission Surface Topography Formation Surface Vacancy and Adatom Production Crater Production Effects of Surface Topography on Sputtering Effect of Surface Steps on Sputtering Fluence Dependence of Sputtering Sputtering of Molecular and Organic Solids Diatomic and Small Anorganic Molecular Solids Sputtering of Organic Solids Sputtering of Polymers Chemical Effects Conclusions 219 References 220 Index 227 Energy and Angular Distributions of Sputtered Species Hubert Gnaser Introduction Theoretical Concepts Energy Dissipation, Recoil Generation, and Sputtering Surface Binding Energy Experimental Techniques Post-Ionization of Sputtered Neutrals Methods for the Determination of Energy Spectra Electrostatic Energy Analysis Fluorescence Techniques Time-of-Flight Measurements Methods for Angular Distribution Measurements Energy and Angular Distributions in the Linear-Cascade Regime Energy Spectra from Metals, Semiconductors, and Organic Materials Energy Spectra of Ground- and Excited-State Atoms, and of Ions Energy Distributions of Atoms Sputtered from Alloys Energy Spectra of Sputtered Molecules Energy Spectra from Alkali Halides and Condensed Gases Alkali Halides and Related Materials Condensed Gases Angular Distribution of Sputtered Species Angular Distributions from Amorphous and Polycrystalline Targets Angular Spectra from Single Crystals Angular Distributions from Multicomponent Targets Energy and Angular Distributions in the Single-Knockon Regime 283

5 XII Contents 5.1 Energy Spectra and Direct Recoils Normal Incidence Bombardment Oblique Incidence Bombardment Angular Distributions at Low-Energy Irradiation Energy and Angular Spectra from High-Density Cascades Cluster-Ion Bombardment Yield Enhancement under Cluster Impact Energy Distributions under Cluster Bombardment Angular Distributions under Cluster Irradiation Summary 300 References 301 Index 323 Chemical Sputtering Wolfgang Jacob and Joachim Roth Introduction Chemical Effects in Sputtering Definitions Physical Sputtering Chemical Erosion Chemical Sputtering Experimental Methods Weight Loss Mass Spectrometry Ellipsometry Optical Emission Spectroscopy Cavity Probes Dedicated Multiple Beam Experiments Chemical Erosion of Carbon by Atomic Hydrogen Thermal Process Species Released by Chemical Erosion Chemical Sputtering Chemical Sputtering with Reactive Ions Temperature Dependence Energy Dependence Dependence an the Type of Graphite Flux Dependence Identification of Species Released by Chemical Sputtering Combined Irradiation with Noble Gas Ions and Hydrogen Atoms Effect of Doping Chemical Sputtering with Molecular Ions at Low Energies Summary of Experimental Results Mechanisms and Modelling for Chemical Sputtering 369

6 Contents XIII 7.1 Empirical Analytic Description Radiation Damage Low-temperature Near-surface Process, Ysurf Empirical Roth Garcia-Rosales Formula Comparison with Erosion Data Extrapolation to Thermal Energies Chemical Sputtering Model by Hopf Molecular Dynamits Simulations Isotope Effect Effects due to Out-diffusion of Hydrocarbons Summary Chemical Sputtering with Other Reactive Species Oxygen Nitrogen Fluorine 389 References 389 Index 399 Electronic Sputtering with Swift Heavy Ions Walter Assmann, Marcel Toulemonde, and Christina Trautmann Introduction Sputtering Experiments Special Problems in High-Energy Sputtering Measuring Techniques for Sputtering Yields Angular Distribution, Total Yield, and Fluence Effect Experimental Arrangements Experimental Results Dependence of Sputtering Yield on Charge State of Incoming Ions Dependence of Sputtering Yield on Angle of Beam Incidence Metallic Materials Angular Distribution of Sputtered Particles for Metallic Targets Total Sputtering Yields for Metallic Targets Insulating Oxides Angular Distributions of Sputtered Particles for Oxides Total Sputtering Yields for Oxides Ionic Insulators Angular Distributions of Sputtered Particles for Ionic Crystals Total Sputtering Yields for Ionic Crystals Summary of Experimental Sputtering Data of Different Materials 426

7 XIV Contents 4 Calculations Based an the Inelastic Thermal Spike Model Application to Metals Application to Insulators Thermal Spike Conclusion Concluding Remarks and Outlook 440 References 442 Index 449 Author Index 461

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