Chapters 34, 36, 37. For Next Week

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1 Chapters 34, 36, 37 Ch 34: Intro to Ecology and Abiotic Conditions Ch 36: Population Ecology Ch 37: Community Ecology For Next Week Lab Field trip! Meet at Norman Levy Park at 8:40 Lecture Presentations next week Ecology HW Pick a spot in your neighborhood, watch it for five minutes and write a paragraph describing the abiotic conditions and how the animals and plants that you observe interact 1

2 The Biosphere The biosphere is composed of living communities and nonliving physical and chemical factors The global ecosystem Aquatic biomes are defined as fresh water and marine Terrestrial biomes are categorized by climate and plant life Ecology Ecology is the study of the interactions of organisms with their environments Ecologists study environmental interactions at the levels of Organism Population Community Ecosystem Includes abiotic and biotic components Abiotic components include atmospheric gases, energy, nutrients, and water 2

3 Human activity Human activities affect all parts of the biosphere Cities, farms, and highways change the landscape The widespread use of chemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides poses problems to people and other organisms Rachel Carson was one of the first to perceive the global dangers of pesticide abuse Carson documented her concerns in the 1962 book Silent Spring This book played a key role in the awakening of environmental awareness Physical and Chemical Factors The most important abiotic factors that determine the biosphere s structure and dynamics include Energy source Temperature Water Nutrients Other aquatic factors (e.g. dissolved oxygen) Other terrestrial factors (e.g. wind) 3

4 Adaptations to the environment One fundamental ecological goal = to explain the distribution of organisms Species may have evolved from ancestors living there May have dispersed there and was able to survive Over millions of years, natural selection by the environment has results in adaptations that equip the resident plants and animals to survive there. Adaptations to the environment The pronghorn is a highly successful herbivorous running mammal of open country A pronghorn s habitat is arid, windswept, and subject to extreme temperature fluctuations Individuals that were able to survive and reproduce under these conditions left offspring that carried their alleles into subsequent generations Adaptations include thick coat to insulate, hair patches that can raise to release heat, teeth specialized for tough plants, speed (60 mph!) 4

5 Climate often determines the distribution of communities The Earth s global climate patterns are largely determined by the input of solar energy and the planet s movement in space Solar radiation varies with latitude Most climatic variations are due to the uneven heating of Earth s surface The Earth s tilt causes the seasons The seasons of the year result from the permanent tilt of the plant on its axis as it orbits the sun 5

6 Uneven heating causes rain and winds The direct intense solar radiation near the equator has an impact on the global patterns of rainfall and winds The tropics experience the greatest annual input and least seasonal variation in solar radiation As the air rises, it cools and releases much of its water content After losing their moisture over equatorial zones, high altitude air masses spread away from the equator Uneven heating causes rain and winds Air cools and descends again at latitudes of about 30 north and south As the dry air descends, some of it spreads back toward the equator This creates the cooling trade winds that dominate the tropics 6

7 Uneven heating causes rain and winds Prevailing wind patterns In the tropics, Earth's rapidly moving surface deflects vertically circulating air, making the winds blow from east to west In temperate zones, the slower-moving surface produces the westerlies, winds that blow from west to east Ocean Currents Ocean currents have a profound effect on regional climates by warming or cooling coastal areas They are created by winds, planet rotation, unequal heating of surface waters, and the locations and shapes of continents 7

8 Landforms Mountains affect rainfall Rainfall is affected by location of mountains, prevailing winds, and ocean current patterns Aquatic Biomes: Marine Oceans cover about 75% of the Earth s surface Light and the availability of nutrients are the major factors that shape aquatic communities 8

9 Aquatic Biomes: Marine The intertidal zone is the wetland at the edge of an estuary or ocean, where water meets land Salt marshes, sand, rocky beaches, and tide pools are part of the intertidal zone It is often flooded by high tides and then left dry during low tides The pelagic zone is the open ocean It supports highly motile animals such as fishes, squids, and marine mammals Phytoplankton and zooplankton drift in the pelagic zone The benthic zone is the ocean bottom It supports a variety of organisms based upon water depth and light penetration Aquatic Biomes: Marine The photic zone is the portion of the ocean into which light penetrates Photosynthesis occurs here The aphotic zone is a vast, dark region It is the most extensive part of the biosphere Although there is no light, a diverse and dense population inhabits this zone 9

10 Aquatic Biomes: Estuaries Estuaries are productive areas where rivers meet the ocean The saltiness of estuaries ranges from less than 1% to 3% They provide nursery areas for oysters, crabs, and many fishes They are often bordered by extensive coastal wetlands Aquatic Biomes: Coral reefs Coral reefs are found in warm tropical waters above the continental shelf They support a huge diversity of invertebrates and fishes 10

11 Aquatic Biomes: Freshwater Freshwater biomes include lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, and wetlands Embedded in terrestrial landscapes Threats to aquatic biomes Pollution Development Nutrient pollution Contamination Alteration of flow Introduction of non-native species Overfishing 11

12 Terrestrial Biomes Terrestrial ecosystems are grouped into eight major types of biomes Biomes are distinguished primarily by their predominant vegetation If the climate in two geographically separate areas is similar, the same type of biome may occur in both places Arctic circle 60 N 30 N Tropic of Cancer Equator Tropic of Capricorn 30 S Tropical forest Savanna Desert Chaparral Temperate grassland Temperate broadleaf forest Coniferous forest Tundra High mountains Polar ice 12

13 Terrestrial Biomes: 1. Tropical Forests Several types of tropical forests occur in the warm, moist belt along the equator The tropical rain forest is the most diverse ecosystem on Earth Large-scale human destruction of tropical rain forests continues to endanger many species It may also alter world climate Terrestrial Biomes: 2. Savanna Drier, tropical areas and some nontropical areas are characterized by the savanna Dominated by grasses and scattered trees Temperature is warm year round, poor soils, lack of moisture, frequent fires Grazing, migratory animals Lots of insects and burrowing animals 13

14 Terrestrial Biomes: 3. Deserts The driest of all terrestrial biomes, characterized by low and unpredictable rainfall Plants adapted to water storing, waxy cuticle, produce great seeds which stay dormant Animals also adapted to drought and extreme temperatures Terrestrial Biomes: 4. Chaparral The chaparral biome is a shrubland with cool, rainy winters and dry, hot summers Chaparral vegetation is adapted to periodic fires Animals include browsing deer, fruiteating birds, seed-eating rodents, lizards, snakes 14

15 Terrestrial Biomes: 5.Temperate grasslands Temperate grasslands are found in the interiors of the continents, where winters are cold Drought, fires, and grazing animals prevent trees from growing Farms have replaced most of North America s temperate grasslands Terrestrial Biomes: 6. Broadleaf forests Temperate broadleaf forests grow where there is sufficient moisture to support the growth of large trees Nearly all of the original broadleaf forests in North America have been drastically altered by agriculture and urban development 15

16 Terrestrial Biomes:7.Coniferous forests The northern coniferous forest is the largest terrestrial biome on Earth Characterized by long, cold winters and short, wet summers Terrestrial Biomes 8. The tundra The arctic tundra lies between the taiga and the permanently frozen polar regions It is a treeless biome characterized by extreme cold, wind, and permafrost Permafrost is continuously frozen subsoil Vegetation includes dwarf shrubs, grasses, mosses, lichens Animals that can withstand the cold, or migrate 16

17 The Global Water Cycle connects aquatic and terrestrial biomes Population Ecology Population A group of individuals of a single species that occupy the same general area Individuals in a population Rely on the same resources Are influenced by the same environmental factors Are likely to interact and breed with one another 17

18 Population Dynamics A population can be described by the number and distribution of individuals Population dynamics is the interactions between biotic and abiotic factors that cause variation in population sizes A population increases through birth and immigration Death and emigration out of an area decrease the population Population Structure Density: the number of individuals of a species per unit area or volume Examples: The number of oak trees per square kilometer in a forest The number of earthworms per cubic meter in forest soil Ecologists use a variety of sampling techniques to estimate population densities 18

19 Population Structure Within a population s geographic range, local densities may vary greatly The dispersion pattern of a population refers to the way individuals are spaced within their area Dispersion patterns can be Clumped Uniform Random Dispersion Patterns In a clumped pattern individuals are grouped in patches Most common in nature Often results from a clumped distribution of resources Can also be related to mating or social behavior 19

20 Dispersion Patterns In a uniform pattern individuals are equally spaced in the environment Often results from interactions between individuals of a population Allelopathy Territorial behaviors Dispersion Patterns In a random pattern of dispersion, the individuals in a population are spaced in an unpredictable way Rare Plants from windblown seeds 20

21 Why monitor population structure? Estimates of population density and dispersion patterns allow changes in a population to be monitored, and compared to the growth and stability of populations in other areas. Tracking Survivorship Life tables track survivorship over the life span of individuals in a population Survivorship curves plot the proportion of individuals alive at each age Type I: most people survive to older age intervals, lots of parental care, few offspring Type II: survivorship is constant Type III: low survivorship for the very young, survivorship high when reach certain age 21

22 Percentage of survivors (log scale) 100 I 10 II 1 III Percentage of maximum life span Idealized Model of Growth Exponential growth model The rate of population increases under ideal conditions Calculated using the equation G = rn G is the growth rate of the population N is the population size r is the per capita rate of increase average contribution of each individual to population growth 22

23 Model that includes limiting factors Logistic growth model Limiting factors are environmental factors that restrict population growth Introduces a parameter, K maximum population size a particular environment can sustain Formula: (K N) G = rn K 23

24 Limits to population growth The logistic growth model Population growth slows and ceases as population density increases Increasing population density results in a decrease in birth rate, an increase in death rate, or both Abiotic factors may reduce population size before other limiting factors become important Limits to population growth Most populations fluctuate in numbers 24

25 Boom-and-bust cycles Some populations fluctuate in density with regularity Boom-and-bust cycles Food shortages Predator-prey interactions Evolution shapes life histories Life history Traits that affect an organism s schedule of reproduction and death Key life history traits include: Age of first reproduction Frequency of reproduction Number of offspring Amount of parental care Natural selection can not optimize all traits simultaneously Life history traits represent tradeoffs 25

26 Evolution shapes life histories One life history pattern is characterized by: Small bodied, short lived animals, that develop and reach sexual maturity quickly, have large numbers of offspring, and offer little (if any) parental care Hypothesized that selection for this set of traits occurs in environments where resources are abundant Called r-selection Evolution shapes life histories Another life history pattern is characterized by: Large bodied, long-lived animals, develop slowly, produce few (well cared-for) offspring Hypothesized that selection for this set of traits occurs in stable environments where the population is near carrying capacity Competition for resources is important so organisms gain an advantage by allocating NRG to their own survival and that of their descendants Called K-selection 26

27 Shifting from populations to communities Population: group of interacting individuals of a species Biological community An assemblage of populations living close enough together for potential interaction Described by its species composition Boundaries of the community vary with research questions Can be a pond Can be the intestinal microbes of a pond organism 27

28 Community Ecology Necessary for the conservation of endangered species and wildlife management Vital for controlling diseases Important for agriculture Interspecific interactions Interspecific interactions Relationships with other species in the community Greatly affect population structure and dynamics Classified according to their effect on the populations involved (harmful or helpful +). 28

29 Nobody benefits Competition (-/-) When does it occur? Ecological niche Sum of an organism s use of biotic and abiotic resources Interspecific competition occurs when the niches of two populations overlap Competition lowers the carrying capacity of competing populations 29

30 Both members benefit Mutualism (+/+) Ex: Mycorrhiza and plants Video: Clownfish and Anemone Predation (+/-) Predation benefits the predator but kills the prey Prey adapt using protective strategies Camouflage Mechanical defenses Chemical defenses 30

31 Herbivory (+/-) Herbivory is not usually fatal Plants must expend energy to replace the loss Plants have numerous defenses against herbivores Spines and thorns Chemical toxins Herbivores and plants undergo coevolution A change in one species acts as a new selective force on another Poison-resistant caterpillars seem to be a strong selective force for Passiflora plants Parasites and Pathogens (+/-) A parasite lives on or in a host from which it obtains nourishment Internal parasites include nematodes and tapeworms External parasites include mosquitoes and ticks Pathogens are disease-causing parasites Pathogens can be bacteria, viruses, fungi, or protists 31

32 Parasites and pathogens (+/-) Non-native pathogens can have rapid and dramatic impacts American chestnut devastated by chestnut blight protist A fungus-like pathogen currently causing sudden oak death on the West Coast Non-native pathogens can cause a decline of the ecosystem Community Dynamics Trophic structure A pattern of feeding relationships consisting of several different levels Food chain Sequence of food transfer up the trophic levels 32

33 Trophic Structure Producers Support all other trophic levels Autotrophs Consumers - Heterotrophs Primary consumers Secondary consumers Tertiary consumers Quaternary consumers Detritivores and decomposers Derive energy from dead matter and wastes Food Webs Food web A network of interconnecting food chains 33

34 Quaternary, tertiary, and secondary consumers Tertiary and secondary consumers Secondary and primary consumers Primary consumers Producers (plants) Species Diversity Species diversity defined by two components Species richness Relative abundance Plant species diversity in a community affects the animals By providing a broader range of habitats, a diverse community supports animal diversity Species diversity has consequences for pathogens 34

35 SITE A SITE B Keystone species Keystone Species A species whose impact on its community is larger than its biomass or abundance indicates Keystone Occupies a niche that holds the rest of its community in place Keystone absent 35

36 Keystone Species Experiments by R. Paine When a predaceous sea-star was removed from experimental areas from within an intertidal zone: The main prey (a mussel) outcompeted many other shoreline organisms for the limited space on rocks Richness dropped from 15 to 5 species! Disturbance Communities are commonly responding to changes brought about by disturbance. Disturbances Events that damage biological communities Storms, fire, floods, droughts, overgrazing, or human activity The types, frequency, and severity of disturbances vary from community to community 36

37 Disturbance Communities change drastically following a severe disturbance Ecological succession Colonization by a variety of species A success of change gradually replaces other species Ecological Succession Primary succession Begins in a virtually lifeless area with no soil Secondary succession When a disturbance destroyed an existing community but left the soil intact 37

38 Invasive species Cause environmental or economic damage by colonizing and dominating wherever they find a suitable habitat. Examples include Earthworms, gypsy moths, kudzu, multiflora rose, zebra mussels Introduction of rabbits in Australia 1859 a European introduced 12 pairs In 1865, 20,000 rabbits were killed on the ranch By 1900, several hundred million rabbits over most of the continent Ecosystem Structure and Dynamics Ecosystem All the organisms in a community as well as the abiotic environment Components of ecosystems Energy flow Passage of energy through the ecosystem Chemical cycling Transfer of materials within the ecosystem 38

39 Primary production Primary production The amount of solar energy converted to chemical energy Carried out by producers Produces biomass Amount of living organic material in an ecosystem Will be different in specific ecosystems Energy supply limits food chain length A pyramid of production Illustrates the cumulative loss of energy transfer in a food chain 39

40 Meat is a luxury for humans The dynamics of energy flow apply to the human population Trophic level Secondary consumers Human meat-eaters Primary consumers Human vegetarians Cattle Producers Corn Corn Chemicals are cycled Ecosystems are supplied with a continual influx of energy Sun Earth s interior Life also depends on the recycling of chemicals Organisms acquire chemicals as nutrients and lose chemicals as waste products Decomposers play a central role in biogeochemical cycles 40

41 The carbon cycle Carbon is the major ingredient of all organic molecules The return of CO 2 to the atmosphere by respiration closely balances its removal by photosynthesis The carbon cycle is affected by burning wood and fossil fuels CO 2 in atmosphere 5 Burning 3 Cellular respiration Photosynthesis 1 Higher-level consumers Plants, algae, cyanobacteria Wood and fossil fuels Decomposition Primary consumers 2 Decomposers (soil microbes) 4 Wastes; death Detritus Plant litter; death 41

42 The phosphorus cycle Organisms require phosphorus for nucleic acids, phospholipids, and ATP Plants absorb phosphate ions in the soil and build them into organic compounds Phosphates are returned to the soil by decomposers Phosphate levels in aquatic ecosystems are typically low enough to be a limiting factor 6 Uplifting of rock Phosphates in solution 5 Weathering of rock Runoff Phosphates in rock 1 3 Assimilation 2 Phosphates in soil (inorganic) Plants Animals Detritus Rock Precipitated (solid) phosphates Decomposition 4 Decomposers in soil 42

43 The nitrogen cycle Nitrogen is an essential component of proteins and nucleic acids Nitrogen has two abiotic reservoirs Air and soil Nitrogen fixation converts N 2 to nitrogen used by plants Carried out by some bacteria and cyanobacteria Nitrogen (N 2 ) in atmosphere 8 Plant Animal 6 Denitrifiers Assimilation by plants 5 Nitrates in soil (NO 3 ) 3 Organic compounds Death; wastes Detritus Organic compounds Nitrogen fixation 1 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules 4 Nitrifying bacteria Decomposers 7 Decomposition Free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria and cyanobacteria Ammonium (NH 4 + ) in soil Nitrogen fixation 2 43

44 FX of Ecosystem alteration Chemical cycling in an ecosystem depends on The web of feeding Relationships between plants, animals, and detritivores Geologic processes Altering an environment can cause severe losses in chemical cycling Shifting from populations to communities All communities and ecosystems have certain features in common Each type of ecosystem has its own unique structure and dynamics Human activities can disrupt the balance of ecosystems 44

45 MOVE TO CAVE PPT 45

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