FOCUS. Context. Ecosystems. Habitats. Communities
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1 FOCUS 4.8 Context This Focus is about how living organisms can affect others, either helping or harming them. It also discusses how living organisms can affect their physical environment. It will help you understand the living world around you. Habitats An organism s habitat is the place where it lives. For example, the habitat of a particular Western grey kangaroo may be the John Forrest National Park in the south-west of Western Australia. Ecologists often talk of the habitat of a species. By this they mean all the living places of that particular type of organism. The habitat of the grey kangaroo species extends across southern Australia. An organism lives in a particular habitat because its requirements are met there. All the organisms of a species have similar requirements and therefore tend to live in similar places. Because all the environments on this planet are not the same, only some places have conditions that will suit a certain species. For example, koalas do not live in Western Australia because their food source, the particular types of eucalypt they prefer, are not found in this State. Fig Koalas are found where their food plants grow. A habitat is not the same as an environment. The term environment is used when discussing the factors that affect an organism. The habitat is simply where it lives. A habitat is a place, whereas an environment comprises a number of factors, such as amount of rainfall or the types of predators in the area. Ecosystems An ecosystem is any place where the organisms and their physical surroundings form an environment different from others nearby. Ecosystems can be any size, depending on what the ecologist wants to study in the area. For example, an ecosystem could be a small lake, a whole forest, or a puddle. A school aquarium is an artificial ecosystem. Biologists use the idea of ecosystems to help them understand the environment in a particular place. They want to know how the organisms affect each other and how the physical factors affect the organisms. They also want to know if the organisms affect their physical surroundings. So when ecologists study ecosystems they are studying the three main components or parts, which are: 1 the living organisms 2 the physical surroundings 3 all the living and non-living factors that make up the environment. Communities All the living organisms in an ecosystem at a particular time are called a community. A community is usually named after an obvious feature in its environment. The most obvious thing may be a living thing, such as a tree. For example, a community may be called a York gum woodland community. The most obvious feature in the non-living surroundings can also be used to name a community. For example, there are granite rock and freshwater lake communities. Communities consist of hundreds or even thousands of different types of organisms. The total number of an organism living in the ecosystem at 177
2 The living environment >>> Fig A freshwater lake community. Only the living organisms are called the community. When competing for food, nesting places, shelter, water and other resources, many animals establish territories to ensure they have enough of each. Territories are areas that these animals defend by attacking any competing animal that enters. Birds fight fiercely for their territories. In the early morning and evening, many birds give out calls to warn others away from their territory. As this keeps most other birds away, fighting occurs less often. The territory is usually defended by the male, but for some birds, such as the magpie and kookaburra, a family defends the territory. Birds sing to warn others away from their territory. Fig a particular time is called the population of that organism. So communities consist of many different populations. Ecosystems are also often named using the community name. So if an area is being studied as an ecosystem, a York gum woodland community would be called a York gum woodland ecosystem. The granite rock community becomes a granite rock ecosystem. How organisms affect each other Living organisms affect each other in their search for their requirements such as food, shelter, mates and a suitable habitat. They sometimes assist each other, and sometimes they compete with and even harm each other. These types of relationships are given special names to define how the organisms affect each other. Competition Competition occurs when organisms need the same resource and there is a limited amount of it. Competition occurs between members of the same species and between different species. For example, pine trees planted in an area all need the same minerals from the soil. If there is only a limited supply, as there usually is, each tree will be able to absorb only a small amount. The trees will not grow as fast as they could if they had adequate amounts of the minerals. So the trees are usually thinner and not as healthy. In natural communities, competition is always fierce. It is difficult for humans to imagine how much competition is a fact of life for other animals and plants. There is a constant struggle for existence, and many die. Predation Predation is a feeding relationship, in which one organism kills and eats another. The attacker is the predator and the one which is eaten is the prey. Usually this refers to animals eating other animals, but some plants also eat animals. The peregrine falcon is a predator. Fig
3 One feeding relationship that is difficult to classify is that of herbivores which eat only part of a plant, rather than killing the whole plant. Usually this is still called predation. Mutualism Mutualism is a relationship in which two organisms live closely together to benefit each other. The microorganisms in the intestines of sheep are a good example. The microorganisms can digest the cell walls of the plant material that sheep eat. The sheep cannot do this. Without the microbes, the sheep could not survive. The microbes receive food and adequate conditions, such as temperature and moisture for survival. So both organisms depend upon each other. Cleaner fish are also an example. They eat parasites off the bodies of other fish. So both fish benefit. Parasitism Another example of the dependence of one organism on another is parasitism. Parasites are organisms that live on or in another organism and feed off it. Tapeworms are well known parasites of humans. The parasite cannot survive without the organism in which it lives. The parasite usually harms the host, but rarely kills it. Some other parasitic organisms are ticks, fleas, leeches, mistletoe and the Western Australian Christmas Tree. 4.8 FOCUS Fig Cleaner fish and the fish they clean are showing mutualism. Fig The human head louse is a parasite that feeds on the scalp. Homework book 4.12 Whodunnit? Pollination is a good example of mutualism. Many flowering plants depend on animals for pollination. Pollination is the transport of pollen, the male sex cells, to the female parts of the flower. This helps to produce the seeds. Without certain animals, these plants cannot reproduce and would eventually die out. Many orchardists keep bees to help pollinate the flowers. Commensalism Commensalism is a relationship in which one organism benefits and the other is unharmed. An example is the remora and a shark. A remora is a type of fish which has a sucker on the back of its head. It hitches a ride on a shark by sticking to its underside. It feeds on leftover bits of food from the shark s prey. Some types of anemone fish, called clown fish, show the characteristic of commensalism. These fish feed on leftover food caught by the anemone, so they do not seem to compete with the anemone. They do not seem Killer clowns There is one type of clown fish which has been seen in aquariums to catch small fish and drag them over to the anemone. The anemone stings them and kills them. Then both the clown fish and the anemone feed from the fish. If this happened in the wild, what would you call the relationship? 179
4 The living environment >>> Fig Commensalism between a shark and a remora Fig Scavengers like this Tasmanian devil eat dead organisms. The remains then decay. to provide the anemone with any benefit. The fish are able to hide in the anemone s tentacles without being stung and so hide from predators. Other creatures are stung when they touch the tentacles. How organisms affect the physical environment Living organisms can affect their physical environment. The recycling of nutrients and ecological succession are examples of ways in which living organisms affect their physical environment. Recycling of nutrients Certain organisms, such as some bacteria, use the bodies of dead organisms and animal wastes for food. These decay organisms are important to producers. Decay organisms are also known as decomposers. This is because the dead bodies and animal wastes contain chemicals that producers can use to make their food. Since there is usually a limited supply of many of these chemicals in the soil and water, any addition improves plant growth. The bacteria return these important chemicals to the soil and water, allowing producers to use them. The chemicals that were in the dead bodies originally came from the soil or water. They were passed along food chains as one organism ate another. Because they are returned to the place from which they came they are said to have been recycled. Recycling of gases also occurs. Oxygen, the product of photosynthesis, is used by animals in respiration. Animals give out carbon dioxide when they respire. This carbon dioxide is then used by producers again in photosynthesis. So the carbon dioxide and oxygen are recycled. Decomposers recycle materials back to the physical surroundings for reuse. Fig Recycling of substances by organisms is extremely important. If this did not occur there would need to be an endless supply of all the substances organisms require. There are almost no resources on the Earth that are in endless supply. This is one reason why governments spend large sums of money to find ways of recycling rubbish. 180
5 4.8 FOCUS Fig The carbon cycle Plastic pollution Scientists are aware now that substances they produce should be biodegradable. This means that organisms can recycle them. Some plastics cannot be broken down by organisms and the chemicals in them are never recycled. Many substances cycle continuously through the environment. For example, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and other elements are continuously recycled. Figure shows the cycling of carbon. It indicates that carbon atoms are never destroyed or lost. Prac 1 p. 183 Ecological succession A good example of how organisms change their physical environment is illustrated by the colonisation of rocky outcrops. The first organisms that colonise bare rock are lichens and algae. These break down the rock with acid. A community develops, based on the lichens as food. The lichens change the area. By breaking up the rock, they help create a thin layer of soil. Wind-blown dirt is trapped in the lichen and adds to the soil. Then the environment is suitable for the growth of mosses and liverworts. These plants begin to grow over the lichens. They attract other animals to the area to feed. So the community changes because the lichens alter the non-living environment, which in turn changes the living environment. Some of the mosses and liverworts gradually die and decay and the soil becomes a little deeper. Then plants that require this depth of soil can grow. Ferns are often among the next organisms in the new community. Over a long period of time even small trees may grow on the rocks. Ecological succession on a granite rock Fig Ecological succession is the term used for the sequence of different communities in an area over a period of time. Ecological succession can be observed in many situations, such as the beach front, or cleared paddocks that return to natural bush. Newly cleared road verges gradually become overgrown again as ecological succession occurs. Eventually all communities reach a stage where they no longer change that is, where ecological succession no longer occurs. This is called the climax. Most natural communities are in this stage. 181
6 The living environment 4.8 FOCUS Use your book [ Questions ] Habitats 1 Explain the difference between a habitat and an environment. 2 Explain why organisms are found only in particular places. Ecosystems 3 What is an ecosystem and what are the three main parts of any ecosystem? Communities 4 Explain the difference between a community and an ecosystem. How organisms affect each other 5 What is competition and why does it occur? 6 What is a territory and why do animals form them? 7 What is mutualism? How organisms affect the physical environment 8 Using an example, explain how organisms can change the physical environment. 9 Why are decay organisms (decomposers) important in an ecosystem? 10 What does biodegradable mean and why is it an important concept? Use your head 11 Give a name for each of the following relationships, and explain why you used that name. a falcon and budgerigar b tick and bobtail lizard c ringworm and human d human and garden e lion and cheetah f sheep and the bacteria in its gut g rabbit, fox and wedge-tailed eagle h soldier ant and worker ant in a colony. >>> 12 In Australia, termites are very important decomposers. How are termites useful in an ecosystem? 13 Why are bees, wasps and honeyeaters important to plants in ecosystems? 14 Explain the following statement, using examples. Ecosystems are composed of the community and its physical surroundings. The community is affected by its physical environment and the physical environment is affected by the community. 15 Using the diagram of the carbon cycle in Figure , describe two ways in which your body could contain carbon atoms that were once part of a dinosaur. 16 Explain how a eucalypt depends on both its living and its physical environments. Use at least three examples for each. 17 Should the rocks, air and water be considered part of the community? Explain your answer. Investigating questions 18 Find a diagram of the nitrogen cycle in a book or on the Internet. a Explain how the nitrogen is recycled to producers. b Explain why legumes are such an important crop species. c Explain why wattles and casuarinas are important in natural ecosystems. 19 Consider the following quote: Humans are really a community of organisms rather than one organism. Research this topic about the organisms which live on the outside and the inside of humans and write about half a page in support of this quote. 182
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