Categories of Biological Classification

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1 Section 1 Categories of Biological Classification Objectives Describe Linnaeus s role in developing the modern system of naming organisms. 3F Summarize the scientific system for naming a species. 8B List the seven levels of biological classification. 8C TAKS 2 Key Terms taxonomy binomial nomenclature genus family order class phylum kingdom domain Figure 1 European honeybee. The European honeybee once had a 12-part scientific name. 300 Taxonomy Just as it is impossible for postal workers to sort mail bearing only the addressee s first name, it is impossible for biologists to memorize every name of the estimated million organisms on Earth. To make sorting mail easier, postal workers sort first by zip code, then by street name and house number. In the same way, biologists group organisms into large categories that in turn are assigned to smaller and more specific categories. More than 2,000 years ago, the Greek philosopher and naturalist Aristotle grouped plants and animals according to their structural similarities. Later Greeks and Romans grouped plants and animals into basic categories such as oaks, dogs, and horses. Eventually each unit of classification came to be called a genus (JEE nuhs) (plural, genera), the Latin word for group. Starting in the Middle Ages, genera were named in Latin. The science of naming and classifying organisms is called taxonomy (tak SAH nuh mee). Until the mid-1700s, biologists named a particular type of organism by adding descriptive phrases to the name of the genus. These phrases sometimes consisted of 12 or more Latin words. They were called polynomials (from poly, meaning many, and nomen, meaning name ). As you can see in Figure 1, the polynomial for the European honeybee became very large and awkward. Polynomials were often changed by biologists, so organisms were rarely known to everyone by the same name. Polynomial: Apis pubescens, thorace subgriseo, abdomine fusco, pedibus posticis glabis, untrinque margine ciliatus A Simpler System A simpler system for naming organisms was developed by the Swedish biologist Carl Linnaeus. His ambition was to catalog all the known kinds of organisms. In the 1750s, he wrote several books that used the polynomial system. But Linnaeus also included a two-word Latin name for each species. Linnaeus s two-word system for naming organisms is called binomial (bie NOH mee uhl) nomenclature (from bi, meaning two ). His two-part name for the European honeybee was Apis mellifera, the genus name followed by a single descriptive word. Over the past 250 years since Linnaeus first used two-part binomial species names, his approach has been universally adopted. Most of the species he described in 1753 still have the two-part names he gave them.

2 301 Scientific Names The unique two-part name for a species is now referred to as its scientific name. The first word is the genus to which the organism belongs. A genus is a taxonomic category containing similar species. Organisms in a genus share important characteristics. For example, the genus Quercus is composed of oak trees. The second word in a scientific name identifies one particular kind of organism within the genus, called a species. A species is the basic biological unit in the Linnaean system of classification. Table 1 lists and describes two species of oaks in the genus Quercus. The first letter of the genus name is always capitalized, and the first letter of the second word is always lowercase. Scientific names are italicized or underlined. After the first use of the full scientific name, the genus name can be abbreviated as a single letter. For example, Quercus rubra can be abbreviated Q. rubra. The scientific name of an organism gives biologists a common way of communicating, regardless of their native language. One species may have many common names, and one common name may be used for more than one species. For example, the bird called a robin in Great Britain is Erithacus rubicula. The very different bird called a robin in North America is Turdus migratorius. The name given to a species must conform to the rules established by an international commission of scientists. All scientific names must have two Latin words or terms created according to the rules of Latin grammar. Two different types of organisms cannot have the same scientific name. Since all the members of a genus share the genus name, the second word in the name of each member of that genus must be different. For example, only one species of the genus Homo can be given the name sapiens. The word Quercus is Latin for oak. The word rubra is Latin for red, and the word phellos is Greek for cork. (Cork is part of the bark of a tree.) Topic: Naming Species Keyword: HX4127 Table 1 Two Species of Oak Common name Genus Scientific name Traits Red oak Quercus Quercus rubra Lobed leaves; produces acorns approximately 25 mm (1 in.) long Willow oak Quercus Quercus phellos Unlobed leaves; produces acorns approximately 15 mm (0.6 in.) long

3 Classifying Organisms Linnaeus worked out a broad system of classification for plants and animals in which an organism s form and structure are the basis for arranging specimens in a collection. The genera and species that he described were later organized into a ranked system of groups that increase in inclusiveness. The different groups into which organisms are classified have expanded since Linnaeus s time and now consist of eight levels, as shown in Figure 2. Similar genera are grouped into a family. Similar families are combined into an order. Orders with common properties are united in a class. Classes with similar characteristics are assigned to a phylum (FIE luhm). Similar phyla are collected into a kingdom. Similar kingdoms are grouped into domains. All living things are grouped into one of three domains. Two domains, Archaea and Bacteria, are each composed of a single kingdom of prokaryotes. The third domain, Eukarya, contains all four kingdoms of eukaryotes. In order to remember the eight categories of classification in their proper order, it may prove useful to memorize a phrase, such as Do Kindly Pay Cash Or Furnish Good Security, to remember Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species. Figure 2 System of classification. Each living thing is assigned to a series of groups, beginning with domain (most inclusive) and ending with species (least inclusive). Kingdoms Phyla A domain contains kingdoms. A kingdom contains phyla. Classes Orders Families A phylum contains classes. A class contains orders. An order contains families. Genera A family contains genera. Topic: Systems of Classification Keyword: HX4173 A genus contains species. 302 A species

4 Classification of the Honeybee Scientific names are particularly powerful because they tell you so much about the organism. Each level of classification is based on characteristics shared by all the organisms it contains. For example, consider the classification of the honeybee, shown in Figure 3. The honeybee s scientific name, Apis mellifera, indicates that it belongs to the genus Apis, which is classified in the family Apidae. Knowing the honeybee s family is Apidae tells you a great deal about the honeybee. All members of the family Apidae are bees that live either alone or in hives, as does Apis mellifera. Knowing the order bees belong in tells you even more. The order to which the honeybee belongs, Hymenoptera, includes ants, bees, and wasps, which usually have two pairs of wings and are likely to be able to sting. At each higher level, the information becomes more general. At the next higher level of classification, A. mellifera belongs to the class Insecta, meaning it is an insect with three major body parts and three pairs of legs. Its phylum, Arthropoda, indicates that A. mellifera is an arthropod, an organism with a coelom, segmented body, jointed appendages, and a hard outer skin made of a complex Domain Eukarya Real Life You named what after me? Several plant and animal names honor famous people. Shakesperia was the original name of a genus of parasitic wasp (see The Taming of the Shrew, Act 2, Scene I), and cartoonist Gary Larson has both a beetle and a biting louse named for him. Finding Information Look up the scientific name of your favorite plant or animal, and create a binomial based on your own name. 8B Kingdom Animalia Phylum Arthropoda Class Insecta Order Hymenoptera Family Apidae Genus Apis Species Apis mellifera Figure 3 Classification of a bee. The European honeybee is classified in eight different levels of biological classification. 303

5 carbohydrate called chitin. Arthropods have been the most successful of all animals. Two-thirds of all the named species on Earth are arthropods. Its kingdom, Animalia, tells you that A. mellifera is a multicellular heterotroph whose cells lack walls. And finally, A. mellifera is classified in the domain Eukarya, which is composed of all eukaryotes. Recall that eukaryotes are composed of one or more cells that have membrane-bound organelles and whose DNA is enclosed within a nucleus. Using a Field Guide 1A 2C 8A 8B TAKS 1 You can use a standard pictoral field guide or a dichotomous key to help you identify species of plants, animals, or other organisms. Materials paper and pencil, a plant or animal field guide Procedure 1. CAUTION: Wear protective gloves when handling any wild plant. Keep your hands away from your face. Using a dichotomous key or other filed guide, identify several species of plants that share the same phylum and class. Collect specimens only if your teacher tells you to do so. 2. Try to identify two plants of the same genus. 3. In a table like the one on the right, record the scientific name of each specimen. 4. Read the description of each species in the field guide. Determine the set of charateristics that fit each specimen. Write these characteristics in a table like the one below. Analysis 1. List the characteristics shared by two specimens that are in the same genus but are different species. 2. Describe how the binomial name of these two species show that they are members of the same genus. Specimen A B C Genus name 3. Identify the key characteristics your field guide uses to tell these two species apart. 4. Critical Thinking Analyzing Data Based on your observations, are two species from the same genus more similar or less similar than two species from different genera? Binomial species name Identifying characteristics Section 1 Review 304 Explain how Linnaeus helped develop the modern system of taxonomy. 3F List rules that scientists use to name organisms. Sequence the eight levels of biological classification, beginning with the most specific level. 8B 8B TAKS Test Prep Which organism is most similar to the sandhill crane, Grus canadensis? 8B A Branta canadensis B Falcipennis canadensis C Grus americana D Recurvirostra americana

6 How Biologists Classify Organisms What Is a Species? Have you ever wondered how scientists tell one species from another? For example, how can you tell a mushroom that can be eaten from a similar looking mushroom that is poisonous? Scientists traditionally have used differences in appearance and structure to group organisms. Sometimes, however, these differences cannot be used to determine if two organisms are of the same species. For example, all single-celled protists classified as Paramecium syngens were once thought to be a single species. These organisms actually represent several protistan species that look very similar but have other characteristics that differ. In 1942, the biologist Ernst Mayr of Harvard University proposed a biologically based definition of species, which is called the biological species concept. Mayr defined a biological species as a group of natural populations that are interbreeding or that could interbreed, and that are reproductively isolated from other such groups. Reproductive isolation occurs when a barrier separates two or more groups of organisms and prevents them from interbreeding. In nature, however, reproductive barriers between sexually reproducing species are not always complete. Sometimes individuals of different species interbreed and produce offspring called hybrids. For example, wolves and dogs are members of separate species in the genus Canis. But interbreeding between wolves and dogs produces fertile offspring, such as the hybrid shown in Figure 4. Another example of a fertile hybrid is triticale, a hybrid of wheat and rye. It is important to remember that when reproductive barriers between two species are not complete, the two species are closely related. Section 2 Objectives List the characteristics that biologists use to classify organisms. 8B Summarize the biological species concept. 8B Relate analogous structures to convergent evolution. 7A 7B TAKS 3 Describe how biologists use cladograms to determine evolutionary histories. 3E Key Terms biological species phylogeny convergent evolution analogous character cladistics ancestral character derived character cladogram evolutionary systematics phylogenetic tree Figure 4 Dog-wolf hybrid. Wolves and dogs can produce fertile offspring. Dog (Canis familiaris) Wolf (Canis lupus) Dog-wolf hybrid 305

7 306 Figure 5 New species of tree kangaroo. Dendrolagus mbaiso is a black-and-white tree kangaroo that lives in the mountains of New Guinea. Evaluating the Biological Species Concept The biological species concept works well for most members of the kingdom Animalia, in which strong barriers to hybridization usually exist. For example, Asian elephants and African elephants do not interbreed in nature. But the biological species concept fails to describe species that reproduce asexually, such as all species of bacteria and some species of protists, fungi, plants, and even some animals. Within many groups of organisms, there are no barriers to interbreeding between the species. Many species of plants, some mammals, and many fishes are able to form fertile hybrids with one or a few closely related species. In practice, modern biologists recognize species by studying an organism s features. Number of Species The number of species in the world is much greater than the number described. Large numbers of species, such as the kangaroo shown in Figure 5, are still being discovered. Only about 1.5 million species have been described to date. Scientists estimate that 5 million to 10 million more species may live in the tropics alone. Since no more than 500,000 tropical species have been named, it is clear that our knowledge of Earth s diversity of species is limited Analyzing Taxonomy of Mythical Organisms 2C 8A 8B Background Classification of organisms often requires grouping organisms based on their characteristics. Use the following list of mythological organisms and their characteristics to complete the analysis. TAKS 1 Pegasus stands 6 ft tall, has a horse s body, a horse s head, four legs, and two wings. Centaur stands 6 ft tall, has a horse s body with a human torso, a male human head, and four legs. Griffin stands 4 6 ft tall, has a lion s body, an eagle s head, four legs, two wings, fur on its body, and feathers on its head and wings. Dragon can grow to several hundred feet, has a snake-like body, from 1 3 reptile-like heads, four legs, scales, and breathes fire. Chimera stands 6 ft tall, has a goat s body, snake s tail, four legs, a lion s head, fur on its body and head, scales on its tail, and breathes fire. Hydra is several hundred feet long, has a long body with four legs and a spiked tail, 100 snake heads, scales, and is poisonous. Analysis 1. Identify the characteristics that you think are the most useful for grouping the organisms into separate groups. 2. Classify the organisms into at least three groups based on the characteristics you think are most important. 3. Evaluate the use of the biological species concept to classify these mythical organisms.

8 Evolutionary History Linnaeus s classification system was based on his observation that organisms have different degrees of similarity. For instance, a tiger resembles a gorilla more closely than either resembles a fish. According to Darwin s views, organisms that are more similar to one another than they are to other organisms have descended from a more recent common ancestor. Therefore, classification based on similarities should reflect an organism s phylogeny, that is, its evolutionary history. Inferring evolutionary connections from similarities, however, can be misleading. Not all features or characters are inherited from a common ancestor. Consider the wings of a bird and the wings of an insect. Both enable flight, but the structures of the two kinds of wings differ. Moreover, fossil evidence indicates that they evolved independently of one another. Through the process called convergent evolution, similarities evolve in organisms not closely related to one another, often because the organisms live in similar habitats. Similarities that arise through convergent evolution are called analogous (ah NAHYL uh guhs) characters. Figure 6 shows an example of convergent evolution. Cladistics Most biologists today analyze evolutionary relationships using cladistics (kluh DIHS tihks). Cladistics is a method of analysis that reconstructs phylogenies by inferring relationships based on shared characters. Cladistics can be used to hypothesize the sequence in which different groups of organisms evolved. To do this, cladistics focuses on the nature of the characters in different groups of organisms. With respect to two different groups, a character is defined as an ancestral character if it evolved in a common ancestor of both groups. Thus when considering the relationship between birds and mammals, a backbone is an ancestral character. Having feathers, however, is a derived character. A derived character evolved in an ancestor of one group but not of the other. Feathers evolved in an ancestor of birds that was not also ancestral to mammals. Topic: Taxonomy Keyword: HX4174 Figure 6 Similar structures in the cactus and spurge families Although they evolved in different parts of the world, cactuses and spurges look similar. Organ pipe cactus, Sternocereus thurber Gifboom, Euphorbia virosa

9 Cladistics is based on the principle that shared derived characters provide evidence that two groups are relatively closely related. Shared ancestral characters, however, do not. For example, lizards and dogs have limbs, but a whale has no limbs. Having limbs does not provide evidence that dogs and lizards are more closely related than are dogs and whales. Recall that whales are descended from an ancestor that had limbs. Therefore, the presence of limbs is a shared ancestral character of all three groups. However, both dogs and whales have mammary glands a shared derived character not found in lizards or lizard ancestors. This provides evidence that dogs and whales share a more recent common ancestor than either shares with lizards. Exploring Further Cladograms How many different ways can you organize your possessions? For example, should all your clothes be grouped according to their type or according to color? Biologists sometimes disagree about how to organize groups of organisms. Why Study Cladograms? Some biologists use cladograms to study the evolutionary relationships among certain groups of organisms, such as species within a genus or genera within a family. Cladograms show how closely two or more groups are related, based on important characteristics. Cladograms convey comparative information about relationships. Organisms that are grouped more closely on a cladogram share a more recent common ancestor than those farther apart. Because the analysis is comparative, cladistic analysis deliberately includes an organism that is only distantly related to the other organisms. This distantly related organism is called an out-group. The out-group serves as a base line for comparisons with the other organisms being evaluated, the in-group. 308 Organisms TAKS 2 Vascular tissue Characters Seeds Flowers Mosses (out-group) Pine trees Flowering plants Ferns Mosses Ferns Vascular tissue Pine trees Seeds Flowering plants Flowers Constructing a Cladogram This example shows the evolutionary relationships among plants. 1. In the table at the left, the traits in the row for the out-group are marked with a 0. A character not found in the out-group is considered a derived character and is marked with a Starting with a diagonal line, as shown above, the out-group (mosses) is placed on the first branch. Just past this first branch, the most common derived character is listed vascular tissue. Vascular tissue is a series of tubes and vessels within a plant. 3. Next the second most common derived character seeds is listed. Ferns lack seeds and so are placed on the second branch of the cladogram. 4. The third most common derived character flowers is then listed. Conifers do not have flowers and so are placed on the third branch. The flowering plants are placed at the end of the cladogram.

10 309 A biologist using cladistics constructs a branching diagram called a cladogram, which shows the evolutionary relationships among groups of organisms. Organisms that share derived characters, are grouped together on the cladogram. As groups evolve, new derived characters appear on the cladogram that were not present in earlier organisms. Considering Characters The great strength of cladistics is objectivity. If a computer is fed the same set of data repeatedly, it will make exactly the same cladogram every time. The disadvantage of cladistics is that the degree of difference between organisms is not considered. Cladistic analysis simply indicates that a character does or does not exist. Cladistic analysis does not take into account variations in the strength of a character, such as the size or location of a fin or the effectiveness of a lung. Each character is treated equally. Thus in a cladogram of vertebrate evolution, birds are grouped with reptiles. This accurately reflects their true ancestry birds evolved from dinosaurs. The immense evolutionary impact of a derived character like feathers, however, is ignored. Evolutionary success often depends on high-impact events, such as the evolution of feathers. Some modern cladistic studies therefore attempt to weigh the evolutionary significance of the characters being studied. Organizing Information The numbered list in the Exploring Further feature tells you how to make a cladogram. Use this list to prepare a cladogram of the organisms listed in the Data Lab Making a Cladogram Background 8B 8C A cladogram is a model that represents a hypothesis about the order in which organisms evolved from a common ancestor. Scientists construct a cladogram by first analyzing characters in a data table. The absence of a vascular system and the absence of seeds is ancestral. Use the data below to construct a cladogram on a separate sheet of paper. Analysis 1. Identify the out-group. 2. Name the least common derived trait. 3. List the order in which the plants in the table would be placed on a cladogram. Characters Plants Seeds Vascular system Horsetails No Yes Liverworts No No Pine trees Yes Yes Horsetail Pine tree Liverwort

11 Topic: Evolutionary Systematics Keyword: HX4077 Evolutionary Systematics In evolutionary systematics, taxonomists give varying degrees of importance to characters and thus produce a subjective analysis of evolutionary relationships. In this type of analysis, evolutionary relationships are displayed in a branching diagram called a phylogenetic tree. As you can see in Figure 7, evolutionary systematics places birds in an entirely separate class from reptiles, giving more importance to characters like feathers that made powered flight possible. Evolutionary systematics involves the full observational power of the biologist, along with any biases he or she may have. A phylogenetic tree and a cladogram are similar in that each represents a hypothesis of evolutionary history, which must be inferred because it was not observed. Figure 7 Evolutionary systematics and cladistic taxonomy Biologists differ in the ways that they classify organisms. Class Mammalia Class Reptilia Class Aves Mammals Turtles Lizards and snakes Crocodiles Birds Mammals Turtles Lizards and snakes Crocodiles Birds Evolutionary systematics Cladistic taxonomy Evolutionary systematics places birds in their own class (Aves), giving more importance to their unique characters, such as feathers. Cladistic analysis places these animals in taxonomic groups that differ from those recommended by evolutionary systematics. For example, crocodiles and birds are grouped closely together because they share many derived characters. Section 2 Review Identify the kinds of information that scientists use when they classify organisms. 8B Summarize what scientists mean by the biological species concept. 8B Define cladistics, and list the kind of information cladistic analysis reveals about evolutionary histories. 3E Critical Thinking Inferring Relationships Explain the relationship between convergent evolution and analogous characters. 7A 7B TAKS Test Prep Different species are placed in the same group on a cladogram if they have the same 8B A appearance. C derived characters. B scientific name. D analogous characters.

12 311 Key Concepts 1 Categories of Biological Classification Swedish biologist Carl Linnaeus developed binomial nomenclature, the two-word system of naming organisms. Scientific names are written in Latin and give biologists a common way of communicating, regardless of the language they speak. The scientific name of an organism consists of its genus name followed by a second name, which identifies its species. Each category of classification is based on characteristics that are shared by all the organisms in the category. Scientists use an eight-level system to classify organisms. Key Terms Section 1 taxonomy (300) binomial nomenclature (300) genus (301) family (302) order (302) class (302) phylum (302) kingdom (302) domain (302) The modern system of classification includes the groups domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. 2 How Biologists Classify Organisms Biologists usually define species according to their appearance and structure. The biological species concept defines species according to their sexual reproductive potential. The biological species concept cannot be used to classify asexually reproducing species. Similar organisms may have analogous structures that arose through convergent evolution. Cladistics focuses on sets of unique characteristics found in a particular group of organisms to reconstruct an evolutionary history. Evolutionary systematics is a more subjective method of classification than is cladistics, but evolutionary systematics allows greater evolutionary importance to be placed on certain characters. Section 2 biological species (305) phylogeny (307) convergent evolution (307) analogous character (307) cladistics (307) ancestral character (307) derived character (307) cladogram (309) evolutionary systematics (310) phylogenetic tree (310)

13 Using Key Terms 1. For grasshoppers and locusts to be in the same family, they must also be in the same a. order. c. genus. b. group. d. species. 2. Two members of the same would be most closely related. 8B a. order c. family b. class d. genus 3. Convergent evolution can lead to features called 7A 7B a. cladograms. b. analogous characters. c. derived characters. d. wings. 4. Cladograms reveal relationships. 8B a. evolutionary c. binomial b. convergent d. analogous 5. Write a sentence that shows your understanding of each of the following terms: convergent evolution, analogous characters, phylogeny, cladogram, and derived characters. Understanding Key Ideas 6. The system of binomial nomenclature was developed by 3F a. Linneaus. c. Mayr. b. Aristotle. d. Darwin. 7. The scientific name for humans is correctly written as a. Homo sapiens. c. Homo sapiens. b. Homo Sapiens. d. Homo Sapiens. 8. A difference between the scientific name of an organism and the classification of that organism is that 8C a. the scientific name includes the family and class of the organism. b. the scientific name always contains three words (trinomial nomenclature). c. the classification includes more categories than the scientific name. d. classification can vary from place to place Biologists classify organisms based on a. their appearance. b. their structure. 8B c. their ability to interbreed. d. All of the above 10. Explain the relationship of domains to kingdoms. 8B 11. The offspring of a donkey (Equus asinus) and a horse (Equus caballus) is a mule, shown below. The mule is sterile. Is the classification of donkeys and horses into different species justified according to the biological species concept? Explain. 8B 12. What features common to both bats and birds suggest that convergent evolution has occurred? 7A 7B 13. Explain how constructing a cladogram might help scientists understand evolutionary relationships. 14. Contrast analogous characters with homologous characters. (Hint: See Chapter 13, Section 2.) 7A 15. Concept Mapping Construct a concept map that shows how biologists determine the classification of a new species. Use the following terms: genus, species, binomial nomenclature, kingdom, biological species concept, derived characters, cladogram, and evolutionary systematics. 8B

14 Critical Thinking 16. Inferring Relationships Explain how you can infer from their names that Escherichia coli and Entamoeba coli are not closely related. 8A 17. Evaluating Hypotheses Scientists infer that groups of organisms that have homologous traits must be related, so they use cladograms to study relationships. Explain the reasoning that supports this inference. 18. Evaluating Viewpoints Explain this statement: Diversity is the result of evolution; classification systems are the inventions of humans. 3A 7B 19. Forming Reasoned Opinions In the laboratory, a scientist studied two identical-looking daisies that belong to the genus Aster. The two plants produce fertile hybrids in the laboratory, but they never interbreed in nature because one plant flowers only in the spring and the other only in autumn. Do the plants belong to the same species? Explain. 7B Alternative Assessment 20. Organizing Information Create a cladogram on a poster board using at least five examples of animal species common to the area where you live. Explain how you created your cladogram in a presentation to your class. Explain why you chose the derived characters that you used in preparing your cladogram. 8B 21. Allocating Resources You and your classmates have been allotted $500 to buy enough laboratory specimens to demonstrate the six kingdoms of life. Look at scientific supply catalogs to get ideas of what is available and how much the specimens cost. Make a poster of your choices to sell your biology teacher on your ideas. 22. Using Technology Using computer software, work with two or three of your classmates to develop a system of classification to organize your favorite books, movies, sports teams, or musical groups. For each system of classification, include at least three levels of distinguishing characteristics. Make a poster of the classification system to share with your class. 8B TAKS Test Prep The diagram below shows seven levels of biological classification from kingdom to species. Use the diagram and your knowledge of science to answer questions 1 3. A B C D E F G (Species) 1. Which letter on the diagram represents the phylum level of classification? 8B A A C C B B D D 2. What level of classification does F represent? F class H genus G family J order 3. What can you infer about different species that belong to the same group at level D? A They belong to the same group at level E. B They belong to different groups at level E. C They belong to the same group at level C. D They belong to different groups at level C. 8B 8B Test Double check (with a calculator, if permitted) all mathematical computations involved in answering a question. 313

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