MAIZE is commonly referred to as
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1 Classifying and Naming Plants MAIZE is commonly referred to as corn in the United States. The different names given to the same plant can cause misunderstandings when Americans speak to people in other countries. The naming of other plants can also get very confusing. Scientists have created logical systems to classify and name plants, thereby reducing confusion. Objective: Explain the classification and naming of plants. Key Terms: angiosperms annuals biennials bolting bryophytes Carl von Linne common name conifers cotyledon cultivar deciduous dichotomous key dicots evergreen ferns genus gymnosperms herbaceous perennials herbarium kingdom monocots morphology nomenclature perennials scientific name species summer annuals taxonomy tracheophytes varieties vascular plants winter annuals woody perennial Plant Taxonomy The branch of biology that deals with identifying and naming organisms is taxonomy. Taxonomy is a way of taking inventory of the earth s living resources. It helps scientists with Page 1
2 their study of biology by giving order to the millions of species of life. Taxonomy allows scientists to communicate and share knowledge about particular organisms. Taxonomy is also used to demonstrate the diversity of organisms, how they are related, and how they have evolved. The ancient Greek philosopher, Aristotle, is noted to have worked with taxonomy. In the 1700s, Carl von Linne (Linnaeus) of Sweden created a classification system for minerals, plants, and animals. He identified two kingdoms for living organisms Plantae and Animalia. In 1969, Robert Whittaker proposed five kingdoms Prokaryotae, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Kingdom Prokaryotae Single-celled microscopic organisms lacking membrane-bound nuclei and other membrane-bound organelles; most are decomposers; single-celled bacteria, blue green algae. Kingdom Protista Single-celled or simple multi-celled organisms; usually aquatic; protozoa; all algae except cynobacteria; also slime molds and water molds. Kingdom Fungi Organisms that lack plastids and photosynthetic pigments; absorb nutrients from living or dead organisms; body composed of threadlike hyphae; most are decomposers; molds and yeasts. Kingdom Plantae Multicellular photosynthetic organisms with distinct developmental stages; cell walls made of cellulose; most are autotrophs or producers. Kingdom Animalia Multicellular organisms with advance tissue differentiation and complex organ systems; able to move, respond quickly to stimuli; have a nervous system to coordinate responses; almost the only heterotrophs or consumers on earth. HIERARCHICAL CLASSIFICATION Taxonomic classification is considered hierarchical. That is, organisms are placed in an order or rank. Hierarchical taxonomy works from the top down or from the bottom up. At the top of the hierarchy is the kingdom. The major taxonomic groups following kingdom are phylum (division), class, order, family, genus, and species. The number of plants in each rank lessens as one moves from kingdom to species. A mnemonic phrase that can be used to recall the taxonomic groups is King Philip cried, Oh, for goodness sake. Morphology Hierarchical classification is based on the degree to which organisms are related. Classification is based largely on the morphology of the organism. Morphology is the study of the internal and external appearance of an organism. In the case of plants, the structures of flowers and fruits and, to some extent, leaves, buds, roots, and stems are considered. Taxonomic Keys Taxonomic keys are useful in separating dissimilar organisms for the purpose of identification. They are based on plant structures. One such key, a dichotomous key, is a written set of choices that leads to the name of a plant. Page 2
3 Herbarium A herbarium is a collection of pressed, dried, and labeled plants that serves as a reference library of plants. Herbarium specimens have monetary and scientific value. Herbarium specimens of crops, weeds, and ornamental plants are useful in educational settings for plant identification purposes. Some specimens are considered priceless, since they are irreplaceable. The scientific information found in a herbarium can be tremendous. Herbarium specimens document the appearance of a plant from a certain location at a particular time of year. They can show the variation within a species. The nature of evolutionary processes can be observed. In addition, the time of flowering and fruiting of particular plants can be documented. Herbarium specimens have other uses. They are used for study away from the field or during a different season. They serve to confirm the identity of plants used in taxonomic studies. Finally, herbarium specimens often hold information about the medicinal value, food value, or utility of the plant. MAJOR PLANT GROUPS The plant kingdom has become successful all over the earth. Plants have adapted to a wide variety of growing conditions and niches. Two major divisions within the Kingdom Plantae are Bryophytes and Tracheophytes. Those are further sub-divided. Non-vascular plants, such as mosses, liverworts, and hornworts, are classified in the Phylum Bryophyta. Bryophytes tend to live in damp places and are very limited in size due to the lack of conducting tissue. They are sometimes referred to as lower plants. Plants with vascular systems consisting of xylem and phloem are placed in the Phylum Tracheophyta. Vascular plants are those with tissues specialized for conducting materials. Tracheophytes may be seedless or seed-producing plants. Plants in tracheophyta that reproduce without seeds are classified as pterophyta. Seed-producing tracheophytes are classified as gymnosperms or angiosperms. Pterophyta FIGURE 1. Herbarium specimens are examined in preparation for field studies. (Courtesy, Agricultural Research Service, USDA) Pterophyta is a class that includes the ferns, which are vascular plants that reproduce by spores rather than seed. Some people call them the amphibians of the plant world because they Page 3
4 depend on water for their sperm to swim through during reproduction. Ferns lack true leaves. Instead, they have fronds that have a double purpose of food production and spore formation. Fronds tend to unfold from the center of the plant. A new frond is called a fiddlehead. Gymnosperms Gymnosperms include plants with seeds that are not enclosed in an ovary. Most gymnosperms reproduce using a structure called a cone. Conifers, ginkgo, and cycads are gymnosperms. Conifers are gymnosperms that produce cones. Examples include firs, pines, spruces, and cedars. Conifer leaves are usually needles or scales. Most conifers are evergreen, holding their leaves all year round. However, some are deciduous, meaning they drop their leaves in the winter. Two examples of deciduous conifers are the larch and the baldcypress. Angiosperms Angiosperms are plants with flowers. All the major food crops are angiosperms. They produce seeds that develop within an ovary. There are two subclasses of angiosperms, Monocotyledonae and Dicotyledonae. Monocotyledonae, or monocots, are plants that have a single cotyledon. A cotyledon is a seed leaf that stores food in the form of starch and protein for use FIGURE 2. Ferns reproduce by spores rather than seed. FIGURE 3. Fir trees are conifers. FIGURE 4. An apple is a dicot. Page 4
5 by the embryo. Monocots have flower parts in multiples of three, parallel venation on narrow leaves, and stems with scattered vascular bundles. Examples include grasses, corn, wheat, rice, and sugar cane. Dicotyledonae, or dicots, are plants with two cotyledons in their seeds. They have flower parts in multiples of four or five, netted veins, broad leaves, and stems with vascular bundles organized in a ring pattern. Examples include soybeans, cotton, apples, and potatoes. PLANT NOMENCLATURE Nomenclature is the naming of organisms. Agricultural plants are referred to by a common name (one used in everyday speech). Plants often have more than one common name. An example is corn or maize. Sometimes common names create confusion. Perhaps Carl von Linne s greatest contribution to science is the binomial system of nomenclature. Because of Linne s work, all plants are given a unique scientific name in addition to whatever common name they might have. A scientific name is a Latinized binomial name. A binomial name consists of two names. The first of the two names is the genus, and the other is the specific epithet or species. The binomial system of naming plants reduces confusion. No two organisms have the same scientific name. For instance, corn may be known by many different common names, but it is clearly identified by its Latin name, Zea mays. The advantage to the binomial system is it is recognized and used by scientists around the world. The genus represents closely related organisms comprised of one or more species grouped together. Plants with the same genus are more similar to one another than with plants of other genera. Genera that share similarities are grouped in a family. The generic name is written with a capital letter and underlined or italicized. A species is composed of organisms with characteristics that distinguish them from other groups in a genus. Members of a species can be bred and produce offspring similar to their parents. A species can pass distinct characteristics from one generation to the next. The specific epithet is written in lowercase lettering and underlined or italicized. Sometimes cultivated plants within a species show a significant difference from other plants in the species and are termed varieties. The difference is inherited from the previous generation through sexual reproduction. The variety is written in lowercase letters, underlined or italicized, and follows the specific epithet. A sweet What s Your Profile? variety of corn named rugosa is written as follows: Zea mays var. rugosa or Interested in the information presented in this E-unit? Zea mays rugosa. You might make a great Plant Scientist / Field Agronomist! Another group important to the Check out: agriculture industry is a cultivar. A cultivar has distinguishing characteristics from the other plants in the Explore your options! species but does not transfer those Visit: Looking for something a little different? characteristics to its offspring through Page 5
6 sexual reproduction. An example of a corn cultivar is Illini Xtra-Sweet. Its name is written in this manner, Zea mays var. rugosa Illini Xtra-Sweet. If Illini Xtra Sweet is allowed to cross pollinate, the plants from the resulting seed will not display the same traits as Illini Xtra Sweet. Cultivars are propagated by selective hybridization or by asexual means. CLASSIFICATION BY LIFE CYCLE Plants are often classified by their life cycles. A life cycle is defined as the time required for a seed to germinate, the seedling to grow vegetatively, to flower, and to produce viable seed. Three categories of life cycles are annuals, biennials, and perennials. Annuals Plants that complete their life cycle within one year or in one growing season are called annuals. Seeds of annuals germinate, produce leaves and roots, flower, produce seed, and then die, all in less than a year. Summer annuals are plants that germinate in the spring, produce leaves, flowers, and seed before dying during the summer or fall. Many crops and garden plants are annuals. Corn, soybeans, rice, wheat, potatoes, and tomatoes are examples of summer annual food crops. Petunias, impatiens, marigolds, and zinnias are examples of garden annuals. Many plants that are considered weeds, such as ragweed, pigweed, lambsquarter, and crabgrass, are also annuals. The seed of a winter annual germinates in the fall. The immature plant overwinters as a compact rosette. Once the plant has received a sufficient period of cold treatment, it bolts. Bolting is a process in which the stem of a plant rapidly elongates at the time of flowering. Flowers then develop, seeds are set, and the plant dies. Winter wheat is a winter annual. Annual Perennial Germination Growth Flowering Death Germination Growth Flowering Dormancy Biennial One or more flowering cycles Germination (Season 1) Growth Dormancy Growth (Season 2) Flowering Death FIGURE 5. Annual, biennial, and perennial life cycles. Page 6
7 Biennials Biennials are plants that normally require two growing seasons to produce flowers and seed before dying. In the first growing season, biennials grow vegetatively. In the fall, they go dormant and rest until the following spring. During the winter months, they receive a required cold treatment. Growth is resumed in the spring of the second season. The plants bolt, flower, produce seed, and die. This group of plants is fewer in number than the other two groups. Some examples include hollyhock, Sweet William, parsley, beets, and carrots. Perennials Perennials are plants that have a life cycle of more than two growing seasons. It may take perennial plants a few years to many years to reach reproductive maturity. They may be woody, like trees and shrubs, or herbaceous. The shoots of herbaceous perennials typically die back to the ground each winter. The roots and crowns of herbaceous perennial plants survive and send up new shoots in the spring. Strawberries, asparagus, and many ornamentals are herbaceous perennials. Woody perennial plants produce secondary growth that persists year after year. Secondary growth gives the plants the ability to grow in girth and height. Theoretically, they can increase in size indefinitely. Woody perennials may flower and produce seeds every year for many years. During the winter months, they go dormant. Plant growth resumes in the spring as vegetative buds on the stems sprout. Examples of woody perennial plants include pines, grapes, walnuts, maples, and oranges. Summary: The branch of biology that deals with identifying and naming organisms is taxonomy. The study of the form or shape of organisms or parts of an organism is called morphology. Taxonomists group plants in categories: kingdom, phylum (division), class, order, family, genus, species, variety, and cultivar. Non-vascular plants are classified in the Phylum Bryophyta. Plants with vascular systems are placed in the Phylum Tracheophyta. Seed-producing tracheophytes are classified as gymnosperms or angiosperms. Gymnosperms are plants with seeds that are not enclosed in an ovary. Angiosperms are plants with flowers. Monocots are angiosperms that have a single cotyledon. Dicots are angiosperms with two cotyledons in their seeds. Plants are named using a system called binomial nomenclature. All plants are given two scientific names, a genus and a species. Cultivated plants often receive variety or cultivar names. Plants are often classified based on their life cycles. They may be annuals, biennials, or perennials. Page 7
8 Checking Your Knowledge: 1. What categories are used in hierarchical plant classification? 2. What characteristics do plants in classifications pterophyta, gymnosperm, and angiosperm possess? 3. How are plants named? 4. How does a variety differ from a cultivar? 5. What are the three life cycles of plants? Expanding Your Knowledge: Identify some common crops grown in your area by their common names. Then, use resources to determine the scientific names for the plants. Conduct further research in the area of plant classification. Find out how the plants are classified from the kingdom name to cultivar. Web Links: Plants Database: Classification Major Reasons for Classifying Plants Introduction to the Plantae Classification of Plants, Whittaker FIVE KINGDOM SYSTEM (1978) Agricultural Career Profiles Page 8
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