Is the scientific study of the interactions of organisms with their environments

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1 Ecology Is the scientific study of the interactions of organisms with their environments Figure 34.2B Ecologists study how organisms interact with their environment at several levels At the organismal level how one kind of organism meets the challenges of its environment Volvox colonies

2 At the population level Ecologists might study factors that limit population size At the community level An ecologist might focus on interspecies interactions Ecosystem interactions involve Living (biotic) communities and nonliving (abiotic) physical and chemical factors Figure 34.2B

3 STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF COMMUNITIES A community includes all the organisms inhabiting a particular area A biological community is all the populations of organisms living close enough together for potential interaction Figure 37.1 Communities are characterized by Species diversity Dominant species Response to disturbance Trophic structure Figure 37.1

4 Competition may occur when a shared resource is limited Interspecific competition Occurs between two species if they both require the same limited resource The competitive exclusion principle States that two species cannot coexist in a community if their niches are identical High tide Chthamalus Chthamalus realized niche Balanus Balanus realized niche Ocean Low tide Figure 37.2A

5 One outcome of competition is resource partitioning Where one of the species may evolve enough through natural selection to use a different set of resources A. ricordii A. insolitus A. insolitus perches on shady branches. A. distichus perches on sunny surfaces. A. aliniger A. distichus A. christophei Figure 37.2B A. cybotes A. etheridgei Predation leads to diverse adaptations in both predator and prey Predation is an interaction between species In which one species, the predator, kills and eats another, the prey The adaptations of both predators and prey Tend to be refined through natural selection

6 Some prey gain protection through Camouflage or chemical defenses Figure 37.3A Figure 37.3B Some prey gain protection through mimicry A copycat adaptation in which one species mimics the appearance of another Figure 37.3C Figure 37.3D

7 Predation can maintain diversity in a community A keystone predator may maintain community diversity By reducing the numbers of the strongest competitors Figure 37.4A Removal of a keystone predator from a community Can cause major changes in community dynamics Figure 37.4B

8 Herbivores and the plants they eat have various adaptations Herbivores Are animals that have adaptations for eating plants or algae Many plants Produce toxic chemicals to protect against herbivores Some herbivore-plant interactions illustrate coevolution Or reciprocal evolutionary adaptations Eggs Sugar deposits Figure 37.5

9 Symbiotic relationships help structure communities A symbiotic relationship Is an interaction between two or more species that live together in direct contact In parasitism A parasite obtains food at the expense of its host Pathogens are parasites That are often lethal to their hosts Figure 37.6A

10 In commensalism One species benefits while the other is unaffected In mutualism Both partners benefit Figure 37.6B Disturbance is a prominent feature of most communities Disturbances are events that Damage biological communities, remove organisms from them, and alter the availability of resources Are characteristic of most communities

11 Ecological succession Is a transition in species composition of a community following a disturbance Primary succession Is the gradual colonization of barren rocks Retreating glacier with moraine in the foreground Dryas stage Spruce starting to appear in the alder and cottonwood forest Figure 37.7 Spruce and hemlock forest

12 Secondary succession Pristine lowland rainforest in Eastern Borneo dominated by trees of the dipterocarp family. Secondary succession Initial surface fire in the same forest, which has been selectively cut since 1980.

13 Secondary succession Three years after the initial fire. Most trees are killed by the surface fire, some by drought stress, but some trees are still standing. Secondary succession Thirteen years after the initial fire. More standing trees have died and collapsed. The undergrowth is dominated by pioneer tree species (predominantly Macaranga spp.). This secondary succession becomes highly flammable in extremely dry years.

14 Secondary succession A second fire. The tree layer, including the postfire secondary succession, is almost completely killed by a high-intensity fire. Secondary succession Final stage of fireinduced savannization of the rainforest in a nearby site. The area is dominated by an aggressive invading grass species (Imperata cylindrica)

15 Secondary succession Ecosystem studies show that drastic alterations, such as the total removal of vegetation Can increase the runoff and loss of soil nutrients Nitrate concentration in runoff (mg/l) Completion of tree cutting Deforested Control Figure 37.20A C

16 Nutrient runoff from agricultural lands and large livestock operations May cause excessive algal growth This cultural eutrophication Reduces species diversity and harms water quality Figure 37.21B Trophic structure is a key factor in community dynamics Every community has a trophic structure A pattern of feeding relationships consisting of several different levels

17 Trophic structures can be represented by food chains The stepwise flow of energy and nutrients from plants (producers), to herbivores (primary consumers), to carnivores (secondary and higher-level consumers) Trophic level Quaternary consumers Hawk Snake Tertiary consumers Killer whale Tuna Mouse Secondary consumers Herring Grasshopper Primary consumers Zooplankton Producers A terrestrial food chain Plant Phytoplan kton An aquatic food chain Food chains interconnect, forming food webs A food web Is a key biotic factor in many ecosystems Quaternary, tertiary, and secondary Tertiary Secondary Secondary Primary Primary Figure Producers (plants)

18 ECOSYSTEM STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS Ecosystem ecology emphasizes energy flow and chemical cycling An ecosystem Includes a community and the abiotic factors with which it interacts Energy flow Chemical cycling Light energy Chemical energy Heat energy Chemical elements Figure Primary production sets the energy budget for ecosystems Primary production Is the rate at which producers convert sunlight to chemical energy in organic matter, or biomass Figure Open ocean Estuary Algal beds and coral reefs Desert and semidesert scrub Tundra Temperate grassland Cultivated land Boreal forest (taiga) Savanna Temperate deciduous forest Tropical rain forest ,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 Average net primary productivity (g/m 2 /yr)

19 Energy supply limits the length of food chains A pyramid of production Shows the flow of energy from producers to primary consumers and to higher trophic levels Tertiary consumers 10 kcal 100 kcal Secondary consumers Primary consumers 1,000 kcal Producers 10,000 kcal Figure ,000,000 kcal of sunlight A production pyramid explains why meat is a luxury for humans A field of corn Can support many more human vegetarians than meat-eaters Trophic level Secondary consumers Primary consumers Human vegetarians Human meat-eaters Cattle Producers Corn Corn Figure 37.14

20 Chemicals are recycled between organic matter and abiotic reservoirs Nutrients recycle between Organisms and abiotic reservoirs 3 Consumers 2 Producers 1 Nutrients available to producers Detritivores 4 Figure Abiotic reservoir Water moves through the biosphere in a global cycle Solar heat Drives the global water cycle of precipitation, evaporation, and transpiration Solar energy Net movement of water vapor by wind Transport over land Figure Evaporation Precipitation from ocean over ocean Evaporation and transpiration from land Runoff and groundwater Precipitation over land Percolation through soil

21 The carbon cycle depends on photosynthesis and respiration Carbon is taken from the atmosphere by photosynthesis Used to make organic molecules, and returned to the atmosphere by cellular respiration CO 2 in atmosphere Photosynthesis Cellular respiration Burning of fossil fuels and wood Carbon compounds in water Higher-level Primaryconsumers consumers Detritus Figure Decomposition The nitrogen cycle relies heavily on bacteria Various bacteria in soil Convert gaseous N 2 to compounds that plants use: ammonium (NH 4+ ) and nitrate (NO 3 ) Nitrogen in atmosphere (N 2 ) Nitrogen fixation Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules of legumes Detritivores Decomposition Assimilation by plants Ammonium (NH + 4 ) Nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria Denitrifying Nitratesbacteria (NO 3 ) Nitrifying bacteria Figure 37.18

22 The phosphorus cycle depends on the weathering of rock Phosphorus and other soil minerals Are recycled locally Rain Geologic uplift of rocks Weathering of rocks Runoff Plants Sedimentation Soil Leaching Plant uptake of PO 4 3 Consumption Figure Decomposition THE BIOSPHERE The biosphere is the total of all of Earth s ecosystems The biosphere Is the global ecosystem Figure 34.2A

23 AQUATIC BIOMES Oceans occupy most of Earth s surface Several characteristics shape ocean communities Light, distance from shore, and the availability of nutrients The intertidal zone, an oceanic zone Is the area of shore where the ocean meets the land Figure 34.7A

24 Coral reefs Are found in warm waters above continental shelves Figure 34.7C Estuaries Are productive areas where rivers flow into the ocean Figure 34.7D

25 Freshwater biomes include lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, and wetlands Factors that shape lake and pond communities include Light, temperature, and the availability of nutrients and dissolved oxygen Abiotic factors change from the source of a river to its mouth And communities vary accordingly Figure 34.8A

26 Wetlands include Marshes and swamps Figure 34.8B TERRESTRIAL BIOMES Terrestrial biomes reflect regional variations in climate Temperature and rainfall Mainly determine the terrestrial biomes

27 Major terrestrial biomes 30ºN Tropic of Cancer Equator Tropic of Capricorn 30ºS Figure 34.9 Tropical forest Savanna Desert Chaparral Temperate grassland Temperate broadleaf forest Coniferous forest Tundra High mountains Polar ice Tropical forests cluster near the equator Tropical rain forests Are the most diverse ecosystem Figure 34.10

28 Savannas are grasslands with scattered trees Savannas Are dry and warm Figure Deserts are defined by their dryness Deserts Are the driest biomes Figure 34.12

29 Spiny shrubs dominate the chaparral The chaparral Is a shrubland with cool, rainy winters and dry, hot summers Figure Broadleaf trees dominate temperate forests Temperate broadleaf forests grow throughout midlatitude regions Where there is sufficient moisture to support the growth of large trees Figure 34.15

30 Coniferous forests are often dominated by a few species of trees The northern coniferous forest, or taiga Is found where there are short summers, and long, snowy winters Figure Long, bitter-cold winters characterize the tundra Arctic tundra Is a treeless biome characterized by extreme cold, wind, and permafrost Figure 34.17

31 Alpine tundra Occurs above the treeline on high mountains Figure Temperate grasslands include the North American prairie Temperate grasslands Are found where winters are cold Figure 34.14

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