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1 The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance PowerPoint Lectures for Campbell Biology: Concepts & Connections, Seventh Edition Reece, Taylor, Simon, and Dickey Biology 1408 Dr. Chris Doumen Lecture by Edward J. Zalisko Introduction! In a healthy body, cell division allows for growth, the replacement of damaged cells, and development from an embryo into an adult. These cell division occur by means of a process of mitosis! In addition, sexually reproducing organisms require eggs and sperm cells These are made by a cell division process called meiosis. 1

2 Introduction! The human body contains about 50 trillion cells. And they all function perfectly. How do you get 50 trillion from one fertilized cell?! Also, the body is continuously replacing worn out cells. Every day, million of cells need to be replaced. Introduction! For example : Every second, about 2 million new red blood cells are destroyed and 2 million new ones are made in a healthy human individuals.! Bone tissue is remodeled constantly and old bone material is replaced with new. Estimates are that 10 % of your bone mass is remodeled every year.! This requires an enormous productive cell division (aka mitosis) 2

3 Introduction! A seastar can regenerate a lost arm by means of cell division and growth ( also by mitosis)! Humans can regenerate certain tissues, but major regrowth of structures (such as a limb) is not programmed into our repair mechanism (yet). Introduction! On the other hand, what happens when cells divide out of control? We call this cancer.! Cancer cells start out as normal body cells, undergo genetic mutations, lose the ability to control the tempo of their own division, and run amok, displace other normal tissue causing organ malfunction, death. 3

4 Introduction! Understanding cell division, cell repair and cell behavior is extremely important since it allows us the understand the processes involved in health, disease and healing.! For example, two-thirds of breasts tumor cells carry receptors for estrogen.! The binding of estrogen stimulates and enhances cell division! Some breast cancer therapy thus use estrogen receptor blockers (such as Tamoxifen) Introduction! The more information known about the normal and abnormal cell division, the better we can find specific therapies for specific individuals! Understanding cell division and cell repair is extremely important since it allows us the understand the processes involved in health, disease and healing.! Research on the details of cell division and the regulatory aspects of cell division will someday provide us with an upper-hand in the battle against cancer! Someday we may be able to regenerate lost limbs like a seastar!? 4

5 CELL DIVISION AND REPRODUCTION 8.1 Cell division plays many important roles in the lives of organisms! Organisms (species) reproduce their own kind, a key characteristic of life. It requires that each new cell we make has all the information to remain true to it s owner.! Everyone knows that flies make flies, frogs mate and make more frogs, dogs will reproduce into dogs, you can t turn a donkey into a horse,etc! It is the concept of species and the continuation of the species. 5

6 8.1 Cell division plays many important roles in the lives of organisms! The key issue is that all the information for a cell s function and how the species looks is located in the DNA.! The DNA is organized into chromosomes but the number of chromosomes is only one aspect of the puzzle.! Example : all these species have 46 chromosomes! Homo sapiens! Lepus europaeus! Aplodontia rufa! Hippotragus niger 8.1 Cell division plays many important roles in the lives of organisms 6

7 8.1 Cell division plays many important roles in the lives of organisms! The chromosomes are made out of DNA and organized into genes. The genes code for specific proteins.! It is the number of genes, the quality of the expressed proteins and the overall combination and integration of these proteins that determines cell function, tissue and organ organization.! Small variations within the genes result in the different looks within a species. 8.1 Cell division plays many important roles in the lives of organisms! Organisms thus reproduce their own kind, a key characteristic of life. It requires that each new cell we make has all the information to remain true to it s owner.! In typical Cell Division, the result is two cells. Biologist name them the off-spring cells or the daughter cells (it does not mean the cells are females). 7

8 8.1 Cell division plays many important roles in the lives of organisms! One key issue is that all the information for a cell s function is located in the DNA.! Thus, the two new daughter cells need exact copies of the DNA from the mother cell otherwise the new cells may not function correctly! A typical cell division hence requires the duplication of the DNA (chromosomes), and delivery of the right copies (sorting of the new sets ) of chromosomes into the resulting pair of daughter cells. In addition, each daughter cell receives all the cytoplasmic components required for cellular metabolism ( such as ribosomes, mitochondria,.) 8.1 Cell division plays many important roles in the lives of organisms! A typical cell division is used for reproduction of single-celled organisms, growth of multicellular organisms from a fertilized egg into an adult, repair and replacement of cells! A special type of cell division is used for sperm and egg production. 8

9 Cell division plays many important roles in the lives of organisms! Living organisms reproduce by two methods. Asexual reproduction involves inheritance of all genes from one (1) parent. produces an offspring that is identical to the original cell or organism; they become genetic copies of each other This is for example a yeast cell, producing a genetically identical daughter cell by asexual reproduction Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission! Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) reproduce by asexual reproduction called binary fission ( dividing in half ).! The chromosome of a prokaryote is a singular circular DNA molecule associated with proteins and much smaller than those of eukaryotes. 9

10 Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission! Binary fission of a prokaryote occurs in three stages: 1. duplication of the circular DNA chromosome and separation of the copies to opposite sides of the cell 2. continued elongation of the cell and movement of the copies, and 3. division into two daughter cells by constriction; it separates the plasma membrane so each new cell has exactly the same genetic material. Plasma membrane Cell wall Prokaryotic chromosome 1 Duplication of the chromosome and separation of the copies 2 Continued elongation of the cell and movement of the copies 3 Division into two daughter cells Salmonella bacterium undergoing binary fission 10

11 Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission! When conditions are favorable such as the right temperature and nutrients are available, some bacteria like Escherichia coli can divide every 20 minutes.! This means that in just 7 hours one (1) bacterium can generate 2,097,152 bacteria.! After one more hour the number of bacteria will have risen to a colossal 16,777,216. That s why we can quickly become ill when pathogenic microbes invade our bodies. Other asexual reproduction! Some eukaryotic cells, such as yeast, reproduce by budding! The buds grow into fully matured individuals which eventually break away from the parent organism. 11

12 Other asexual reproduction! A few multi-cellular organism, such as sponges, Hydra ( a freshwater, sessile, jelly fish relative) and corals also create off-spring by a budding principle. Hydra with bud Brain coral with buds 12

13 Cell division plays many important roles in the lives of organisms! The other mode of reproduction is called Sexual reproduction In this process the genes from two (2) individuals are mixed. produces offspring that are similar to the parents, but show variations in traits involves inheritance of unique sets of combination of genes from two parents. creates offspring with new set of genetic cards and new variations on a similar theme. THE EUKARYOTIC CELL CYCLE AND MITOSIS 13

14 8.3 The large, complex chromosomes of eukaryotes duplicate with each cell division! Eukaryotic cells are more complex and larger than prokaryotic cells, have more genes, and Whereas prokaryotes have one circular DNA, eukaryotes store most of their genes on multiple chromosomes within the membrane enclosed nucleus. 8.3 The large, complex chromosomes of eukaryotes duplicate with each cell division! Eukaryotic chromosomes are composed of chromatin consisting of one long DNA molecule and proteins that help maintain the chromosome structure and control the activity of its genes. When a cell is not dividing, the chromatin of every chromosome is very relaxed and almost invisible with a microscope. 14

15 8.3 Chromosomes are composed of chromatin In this uncoiled chromatin, the black arrows point at DNA wrapped around proteins (histones). The white arrow indicates segments of DNA without proteins 8.3 Chromosomes are composed of chromatin A schematic representation of the previous slide DNA wrapped around histone proteins 15

16 8.3 Chromosomes are composed of chromatin In this uncoiled chromatine, most of the proteins have been stripped away 8.3 The large, complex chromosomes of eukaryotes duplicate with each cell division! To prepare for division, the chromatin of each chromosome becomes highly compact, condensed and becomes visible with a microscope. 16

17 8.3 The large, complex chromosomes of eukaryotes duplicate with each cell division! Before a eukaryotic cell begins to divide, each chromosome is duplicated exactly, resulting in two copies called sister chromatids The sister chromatids are joined together by a narrowed waist called the centromere. Since chromosomes are only nice and visible when they are condensed, they have already duplicated. The pictures of chromosomes thus are actually of sets of sister chromatids (duplicated chromosomes) 8.3 The large, complex chromosomes of eukaryotes duplicate with each cell division sister chromatids Chromosomes duplicated right before division 17

18 8.3 The large, complex chromosomes of eukaryotes duplicate with each cell division Highly visible chromatin (chromosomes) in a plant cell (African blood lily) just before cell division (mitosis). Visible chromatin of a bluebell plant cell (Endymion sp.) undergoing cell division (mitosis). 8.3 The large, complex chromosomes of eukaryotes duplicate with each cell division! Thus if a cell has n chromosomes, they will become duplicated and the cell will have 2n sister chromatids.! Example : a cell has 10 chromosomes. When cell division starts, each become duplicated, resulting in 20 sister chromatids Sister chromatids Centromere 18

19 8.3 The large, complex chromosomes of eukaryotes duplicate with each cell division! When a cell divides, the sister chromatids! separate from each other, now called chromosomes, and are sorted into separate daughter cells.! This results in two daughter cells, each containing a complete and identical set of chromosomes! In the previous example, the sister chromatids become separated and sorted into 2 daughter cells we obtain 2 cells with new sets of 10 chromosomes Sister chromatids Centromere Figure 8.3B Chromosomes DNA molecules Sister chromatids Chromosome duplication Centromere Sister chromatids Chromosome distribution to the daughter cells 19

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