8/25/ Opening Questions: How did life arise? Imagine you are on a time machine that takes you back in time to the early Earth.
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1 Chapter 8 Biodiversity 1: Microscopic Organisms 8.1 Opening Questions: How did life arise? 8.1 Origin of life 8.2 Prokaryotes overview 8.3 Archaea 8.4 Bacteria 8.5 Bacteria can transfer DNA 8.6 Eukaryotic cells evolution 8.7 Protists 8.8 The origin of multicellular life 8.9 Viruses are nonliving parasites 8.10 HIV 8.11 Prions and viroids Imagine you are on a time machine that takes you back in time to the early Earth. Describe what the first life on Earth looked like. How was this early life similar or different from life on Earth today? 8.1 Life on Earth likely appeared about 3.9 billion years ago. Early Earth was not very hospitable to life. Although we will never know for certain how life on Earth originated, scientists can hypothesize about what may have occurred. 8.1 Biologists hypothesize that life originated in a series of stages. How could the first living cells arise? One hypothesis is that the unique conditions of primordial Earth fostered biogenesis, the formation of new living organisms. Computer image of conditions on early Earth How much do you think the first cell resembled your own cells? 8.1 Biogenesis may have proceeded through a series of steps. In 1953, Urey and Miller demonstrated that organic monomers can form under conditions that simulate early Earth. Nucleotides, amino acids Early Earth s extreme conditions may have bonded monomers into organic polymers. 8.1 A key stage in the origin of life was the formation of duplicating molecules. Life depends on a molecule that can copy itself, in order to pass down information. RNA may have been the first duplicating molecule. Cell membranes may have formed as lipids that spontaneously came together, like oil droplets in water. 1
2 8.2 Opening Questions: What do you know about prokaryotes? Recall that you (and all plants, animals and fungi) are made up of eukaryotic cells. What are at least three things you know about prokaryotes or prokaryotic cells? 8.2 Prokaryotes were the first groups of life to evolve on Earth. Prokaryotes have relatively small, simple cells. For the first billion years, they were the only life on planet Earth! Today, prokaryotes are found everywhere there is life, including many places where no other life can survive. 8.2 Two of the domains of life consist of prokaryotes: Bacteria and Archaea. Domain Bacteria Unicellular Found everywhere Some cause disease, but most are beneficial Domain Archaea Unicellular Often live in extreme conditions 8.2 Prokaryotes have unique cellular structures and properties. Nearly all prokaryotes have a cell wall. Provides protection in a range of environments Many species are mobile. Flagella propel cells. Many prokaryotes have a sticky capsule. Provides protection and allows cell to stick to surfaces 8.2 Prokaryotes have unique cellular structures and properties. Some prokaryotic species can form an endospore, a thick-shelled protective container for harsh conditions. When conditions improve, the bacteria can resume function. Many prokaryotes reproduce by splitting in half, a process called binary fission. This can result in a huge population of prokaryotes in a short period of time. 8.2 Prokaryotes exhibit a wide range of shapes and structures. Cocci are cells with a spherical shape that may be found alone, in chains, or clustered. Bacilli are rodshaped cells that may be found singly or in chains. Spiral or curved shaped prokaryotes mostly occur singly. 2
3 8.2 Prokaryotes exhibit a wide range of nutritional habits. In addition to photosynthesis and the consumption of other organisms, many prokaryotes can even produce their own food directly from the environment. 8.2 Prokaryotes living together can form unique features. Prokaryotes often form biofilms, organized colonies of one or several species attached to a surface, such as rocks or living tissue. This prokaryote can obtain nutrition from the sulfur-rich superheated water emitted by a hydrothermal vent several kilometers beneath the surface of the ocean. 8.3 Opening Questions: How extreme can life take it? Imagine that we are able to send a probe to another planet. The conditions on this planet, while similar to Earth, are much harsher. Temperatures swing from high to low and oxygen levels are low. 8.3 Prokaryotes in the domain Archaea are often found in extreme habitats. Archaea include methanogens (which produce methane gas) halophiles (salt lovers) thermophiles (heat lovers) Is it worth looking for life in extreme conditions? Can life even survive in those conditions? Explain your answer. Africa s Lake Natron is perhaps the world s most caustic lake. The orange color is due to the red pigments found in salt-loving archaea. 8.3 Methanogens live in oxygen-free (anaerobic) environments. Methanogens emit methane gas as a waste product of their metabolism. They are frequently found in the thick mud at the bottom of a swamp or bog. 8.3 Halophiles thrive in salty environments. Many species of halophiles can tolerate salt concentrations 5 to 10 times higher than that of seawater. Methanogens thrive in the oxygen-free conditions within landfills. Dead Sea, Israel 3
4 8.3 Thermophiles tolerate high-temperature environments. Thermophiles ( heat lovers ) can live in areas with temperatures above boiling. Conditions may be similar to those faced by the first organisms billions of years ago. The Grand Prismatic Spring, Yellowstone National Park 8.4 Opening Questions: True or false? Explain your choice: True or false: There are more bacteria cells in your body than there are human cells. True or false: There are more bacteria in your intestine than there are people on Earth. True or false: Bacteria can produce oxygen for us to breathe. 8.4 Prokaryotes in the domain Bacteria are very numerous and common. Bacteria thrive in most of Earth s habitats including in and on your body! Bacteria can be harmful or helpful. Each bacterium is microscopic, but their collective impact is enormous. 8.4 Helpful bacteria have a positive impact on ecosystems. Bacteria are important nitrogen-fixers. In the soil, bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form that plants can use. Bacteria are important decomposers. Without the breakdown of dead organisms, plants and animals could not survive. 8.4 Helpful bacteria have a positive impact on human society. Bacteria are important in sewage treatment. Microbes decompose the sludge, helping to recycle the nutrients. Bacteria are important in bioremediation. Bacteria can be used to remove pollutants from the environment. 8.4 Bacterial infections account for about half of all human diseases. Pathogens are the relatively few species of bacteria that can cause serious illness. 4
5 8.5 Opening Questions: True or false? Explain your choice: True or false: Bacteria reproduce asexually. True or false: Soap and water are more effective at killing germs than antibacterial hand sanitizers. True or false: The only good bacterium is a dead bacterium. 8.5 Bacteria have one chromosome and reproduce asexually. Bacteria reproduce by binary fission, resulting in two identical cells. As a result, bacteria in a colony are genetically identical to each other. But this does not mean that bacteria lack ways to produce new combinations of genes. 8.5 Although they reproduce asexually, bacteria can transfer DNA between cells. Bacteria have several mechanisms for transferring DNA between cells, including Transformation Transduction Conjugation Plasmid transfer 8.5 Dead bacteria can release DNA into the environment. In transformation, pieces of DNA may be taken up by other bacteria and integrated. 8.5 A bacteriophage can transfer DNA between bacteria. A bacteriophage (also called a phage) is a virus that infects bacteria. In transduction, a phage transfers DNA. 8.5 Bacteria can also transfer DNA through a physical bridge. A donor cell uses a hollow extension called a sex pilus (plural, pili), to form a physical connection to a recipient cell. In conjugation, the donor cell transfers a chromosome copy through a mating bridge. 5
6 8.5 Plasmids DNA can be transferred between bacteria. A plasmid is a small, circular DNA molecule that resides in the cytoplasm of a bacterium. Plasmids can replicate independently of the bacterial chromosome. 8.6 Opening Questions: How did eukaryotes evolve from prokaryotes? Prokayotes were the only cell type for the first 1.4 billion years of life on Earth! Eukaryotes evolved about 2 billion years ago. What made them different? Name at least two major differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Fossilized algae 8.6 The endomembrane system is a unique feature of eukaryotic cells. The endomembrane system consists of two main components: 1. Interconnected internal membranes 2. Membrane-enclosed organelles Micrograph of a human brain cell with visible organelles 8.6 Internal membranes likely evolved from inward folding of the plasma membrane. 8.6 The mitochondria and chloroplast likely originated from endosymbiosis. Endosymbiosis is when one species lives inside another host species. 8.7 Opening Questions: Are you a prokaryote or a eukaryote? What are some unique characteristics of the following three kingdoms? Animal Plant Fungi 6
7 8.7 The protists are very diverse. 8.7 The protists are very diverse. The term protist is used to describe all eukaryotes that do not belong to the plant, animal, or fungus kingdoms. Protists: Evolved ~ 2.1 billion years ago Are mostly unicellular, but some are multicellular Are all eukaryotic cells Protozoans are protists that obtain nutrients primarily by eating. Giardia is an intestinal parasite. Paramecium has hair-like cilia. Plasmodium causes malaria. 8.7 The protists are very diverse. Amoebas are single-celled protists with great flexibility in their body form. Slime molds are protists that resemble fungi in appearance and lifestyle. 8.7 The protists are very diverse. Algae (singular, alga) are photosynthetic protists able to produce their own food from sunlight. Amoeba proteus Unicellular green algae Seaweeds are large, multicellular marine algae. 8.8 Opening Questions: What makes mulitcellularity special? What do you see as the major advantages and disadvantages of a multicellular organism versus a unicellular organism? 8.8 The origin of multicellular life was a major milestone in the evolution of life. Biologists hypothesized a series of steps that may have occurred in the evolution of multicellularity. Unicellular diatoms Multicellular tree 7
8 8.8 For almost the first 2 billion years life was unicellular. 8.8 Multicellular life emerged around 1.2 billion years ago. 8.9 Opening Questions: Is a virus alive? Consider each of the defining characteristics of life. How many characteristics does a virus have? Reproduction Growth and development Energy use Order Cells 8.9 Most biologists do not consider viruses to be alive. A virus has no cells and cannot reproduce on its own. Two of the defining characteristics of life A virus must infect a living cell and direct that cell s internal machinery to make more viruses. 8.9 Viruses have simple structures. 8.9 A bacteriophage (or phage) is a virus that infects bacteria. Once a bacteria is infected, the virus can enter one of two life cycles: The lytic cycle Viral DNA replicates using cell s machinery. This culminates in the death of the host cell. The lysogenic cycle Viral DNA is inserted in bacterial chromosome. Virus remains dormant for long periods. 8
9 8.9 A comparisons of lytic and lysogenic cycles 8.9 Viruses are capable of infecting a broad variety of animals and plants. Influenza virus Tobacco mosaic virus 8.10 Opening Questions: What do you know about HIV? What are at least three things you know about HIV and/or AIDS? 8.10 HIV is a virus that cripples the human immune system. The deadly disease AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) is caused by HIV (human immunodeficiency virus). HIV is a retrovirus, with an RNA genome. Targets cells of the immune system Spreads by sexual contact or by sharing blood products HIV representation 8.10 HIV relies on the action of the enzyme reverse transcriptase. To reproduce, HIV uses reverse transcriptase to convert RNA into DNA. During normal DNA expression, the host cell will then make new viral RNA. HIV essentially hijacks the cell s own DNA expression system! 8.10 HIV life cycle HIV representation 9
10 8.11 Opening Questions: Can a virus evolve? If a virus is not alive, can it undergo the process of natural selection? Explain your answer. Hint: Think back to the observations Darwin made about natural selection A pathogen is any agent that causes disease. Living organisms, such as bacteria, fungi, and protists, can cause disease. Nonliving viruses can also be pathogens. There are two other pathogens that are even smaller and simpler than viruses: prions and viroids Prions are nonliving parasites even smaller than viruses. A prion is an infectious protein, a misshapen version of a normal brain protein. Prions are capable of clustering together and disrupting brain function Viroids are small, circular RNA molecules that can infect plants. Viroids do not encode proteins but can replicate in host plant cells by using the host s own cellular enzymes. Potato spindle tuber viroid causes cracking and distortion of tubers. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) is a prion disease. 10
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