Chapters 17, 19.2, & 16.4 EVOLUTION

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1 Chapters 17, 19.2, & 16.4 EVOLUTION

2 STANDARD #2 EXPLAIN THE PROCESS OF NATURAL SELECTION A. Explain how genes make evolution possible (17.1) B. Describe what cause a gene pool to change over time (17.2) C. Identify what patterns cause the formation of a new species (17.3 & 19.2)

3 STD.2 A. EXPLAIN HOW GENES MAKE EVOLUTION POSSIBLE (17.1) population genetics study of evolution from a genetic point of view population is group of individuals of same species that interbreed evolution is a gradual change in the genetic material of a population individuals in a population vary in observable traits when graphed, it is a bell curve heredity and environment influence variations

4 Variations in genotype due to: mutation recombination of genes independent assortment crossing over random joining of gametes

5 THE GENE POOL AND ALLELE FREQUENCIES gene pool total genetic information in a population allele frequency measure of the relative occurrence of alleles in a population determined by dividing the number of a certain allele by the total # of alleles in population Predicting Phenotype and Genotype Frequencies phenotype frequency # of individuals with certain phenotype by total # individuals in population

6 WHAT IS THE FREQUENCY OF HOMOZYGOUS BROWN? For example, this diagram shows the gene pool for fur color in a population of mice.

7 COMPLETE THE PUNNETT SQUARE P=0.6 & Q=0.4 p = freq. of dominant allele q = freq. of recessive allele p + q = 1 p 2 + 2pq + q 2 = 1 p 2 = freq. of homozygous dominant 2pq = freq. of heterozygous q 2 = freq. homozygous recessive

8 SOLVE THE PROBLEMS Solving gene frequency problems the allele for black fur (B) is dominant to the allele for white fur (b) 9% of the population has white fur What % is heterozygous black? Given: q 2 =.09 q = Since p + q = 1 then: p = 1 - q p = % heterozygous = 2pq=

9 STANDARD 2. B. DESCRIBE WHAT CAUSE A GENE POOL TO CHANGE OVER TIME (17.2) Natural Selection bjects/3014/ /web_tutorials/17_a 02.swf 1. stabilizing selection 2. directional selection 3. disruptive selection

10 STABILIZING SELECTION occurs when individuals near the center of the curve have higher fitness than individuals at either end This situation keeps the center of the curve at its current position, but it narrows the overall graph. extremes of trait reduced, average is favored rabbit leg length, lizard size (new predator), human birth weight

11 DIRECTIONAL SELECTION occurs when individuals at one end of the curve have higher fitness than individuals in the middle or at the other end. The range of phenotypes shifts because some individuals are more successful at surviving and reproducing than others. one of the extremes of a trait favored anteater tongue length, giraffe neck length, large seed-birds with large beaks favored

12 DISRUPTIVE SELECTION occurs when individuals at the upper and lower ends of the curve have higher fitness than individuals near the middle. acts against individuals of an intermediate type and can create two distinct phenotypes. both extremes of a trait favored limpets (white shell favored on rocks with goose barnacles, dark tan favored on bare dark colored rocks, intermediate color seen more easily in both situations), acorn size Medium size seed are less common- birds with unusually small or large beaks would have higher fitness

13 HARDY-WEINBERG GENETIC EQUILIBRIUM allele frequencies in a population tend to remain the same from generation to generation unless acted on by outside influences based on a hypothetical non-evolving population no mutations occur individuals don t enter or leave a population population is large individuals mate randomly natural selection does not occur

14 DISRUPTION OF GENETIC EQUILIBRIUM: 1. Mutation spontaneous mutations occur all the time organisms are subjected to mutagens 2. Migration immigration - movement of individuals into a population emigration - movement of individuals out of a population gene flow genes moving from one population to another

15 DISRUPTION OF GENETIC EQUILIBRIUM 3. Genetic Drift allele frequencies change due to random events or chance in a smaller population failure of an individual to reproduce or one individual mating often disease individual dies freq. of an allele is 2% how many have it in a population of: 50, 100, 200, 500, 1000, 2000, Nonrandom Mating many species do not mate randomly

16 STANDARD 2C. IDENTIFY WHAT PATTERNS CAUSE THE FORMATION OF A NEW SPECIES. Speciation is the formation of a new species. a population whose members can: interbreed produce fertile offspring. Isolating Mechanisms: 1. Reproductive isolation 2. Behavioral isolation 3. Geographical isolation

17 REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION occurs when a population splits into two groups and the two populations no longer interbreed. sometimes caused by disruptive selection When populations become reproductively isolated they can evolve into two separate species.

18 BEHAVIORAL ISOLATION occurs when two populations that are capable of interbreeding develop differences in mating call not recognized difference in mating times courtship patterns differ

19 GEOGRAPHIC ISOLATION physical separation of members of a population deep canyon, river change course, valley dries and becomes desert-like, stretch of ocean subpopulations isolated gene flow stops each gene pool evolves natural selection Mutation genetic drift cause them to diverge making them incompatible for mating Example: Kaibab squirrel is a subspecies of the Abert s squirrel that formed when a small population became isolated on the north rim of the Grand Canyon. Separate gene pools formed, and genetic changes in one group were not passed on to the other.

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21 DESCRIBE THE CURRENT HYPOTHESIS OF SPECIATION ABOUT DARWIN S FINCHES (17.3) Darwin hypothesized that the Galápagos finches had descended from a common ancestor. He proposed that natural selection shaped the beaks of different bird populations as they became adapted to eat different foods.

22 DESCRIBE THE CURRENT HYPOTHESIS OF SPECIATION ABOUT DARWIN S FINCHES (17.3) Galapagos (Darwin s) finches ancestor on mainland some blown off course to Galapagos islands (600 miles of ocean) geogrpahic isolation from mainland and island to island no land birds, food plentiful, no predators population grew fast competition for food later variations in beak size started feeding on different items different size seeds, cactus pulp, insects, woodpecker finch reproductive isolation also 13 species of finches (none on mainland)

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24 DESCRIBE TWO IMPORTANT FACTORS IN MACROEVOLUTION Macroevolution: Major patterns and changes among living organisms over a period of time two important factors: 1. adaptive radiation 2. convergent evolution

25 ADAPTIVE RADIATION many related species evolve from a single ancestral species (referring to form and structure) adaptive radiation may occur when species migrate to a new environment when extinction clears an environment of a large number of inhabitants.

26 ADAPTIVE RADIATION FOSSILS MODERN ADAPTIVE RADIATION Dinosaurs flourished for about 150 million years during the Mesozoic Era. The fossil record documents that during this time, mammals diversified but remained small. After most dinosaurs became extinct however, an adaptive radiation began and produced the great diversity of mammals of the Cenozoic Era. Both Galápagos finches and Hawaiian honeycreepers evolved from a single bird species. Both finches and honeycreepers evolved different beaks different behaviors that enable each of them to eat different kinds of food.

27 CONVERGENT EVOLUTION when the environment selects similar phenotypes even though the ancestral types were quite different Evolution produces similar structures and characteristics in distantly-related organisms Organisms have similar environments and selection pressures similar organisms appear similar sharks and porpoises not closely related

28 For example: mammals that feed on ants and termites evolved five times in five different regions as shown in the figure below. They all developed: the powerful front claws long hairless snout tongue covered with sticky saliva that are necessary adaptations for hunting and eating insects.

29 DIVERGENT EVOLUTION two or more related species become more dissimilar (response to differing habitats) adaptive radiation many related species evolve from a single ancestor Galapagos finches artificial selection speeds up divergence (breeding of dogs) divergent evolution over long periods of time has produced the many species that exist

30 EXPLAIN THE EVOLUTIONARY CHARACTERISTICS OF COEVOLVING ORGANISM Coevolution change of two or more species in close association with each other predator and prey, parasite and host, plant eating animals and plants they feed on, plants and the animals that pollinate them Examples: bats feeding on nectar and the flowers they feed on

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32 Examples: Darwin discovered an orchid whose flowers had a 40-centimeter-long structure called a spur with a supply of nectar at the bottom. Darwin predicted that some pollinating insect must have some kind of feeding structure that would allow it to reach the nectar. Darwin never saw that insect. About 40 years later, researchers discovered a moth with a 40-centimeter-long feeding tube that matched Darwin s prediction. Milkweed plants, for example, produce toxic chemicals. But monarch caterpillars not only can tolerate this toxin, they also can store it in their body tissues to use as a defense against their predators.

33 IDENTIFY THE PROCESSES THAT INFLUENCE SURVIVAL OR EXTINCTION OF A SPECIES OR CLADE. If the rate of speciation in a clade is equal to or greater than the rate of extinction, the clade will continue to exist. If the rate of extinction in a clade is greater than the rate of speciation, the clade will eventually become extinct. Species are always evolving and competing and some species become extinct because of the slow but steady process of natural selection, referred to as background extinction. In contrast, a mass extinction affects many species over a relatively short period of time.

34 CONTRAST GRADUALISM AND PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM Rate of Speciation gradual evolution over millions of years, continual change punctuated evolution sudden shifts in form over few thousand or less years

35 CONTRAST GRADUALISM AND PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM What is the difference between these two diagrams?

36 RAPID EVOLUTION may occur after: a small population becomes isolated from the main population. small population can evolve faster than the larger one because genetic changes spread more quickly among fewer individuals. a small group of organisms migrates to a new environment. Galápagos finches

37 STANDARD #3. USE EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT COMMON ANCESTRY A. Identify the various pieces of evidence that support the theory of evolution

38 STANDARD 3.A. IDENTIFY THE VARIOUS PIECES OF EVIDENCE THAT SUPPORT THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION 1. Biogeography 2. Fossil Record 3. Anatomy 4. Embryology Similarities 5. Genetic Code- Biochemical Similarities

39 BIOGEOGRAPHY the study of where: organisms live now they and their ancestors lived in the past Two biogeographical patterns are significant to Darwin s theory: 1 st pattern in which closely related species differentiate in slightly different climates 2 nd pattern in which very distantly related species develop similarities in similar environments.

40 FOSSIL RECORD indicates organisms have changed over time

41 ANATOMY Homologous Structures parts with similar basic structure, may vary in function derived from same structures in embryo similar features that originated in a shared ancestor indicates common ancestor analogous structures serve same function, look somewhat alike, but have different structure and embryological development bird and insect wing

42 ANATOMY Homologous Structure

43 ANATOMY Vestigial Structure: features that seem to have no useful function, usually reduced in size human tailbone and appendix, third eyelid, tail muscles, ear muscles, extra nipples, body hair, gill arches, wisdom teeth, tiny pelvic and limb bones in some snakes, pelvic bones in whales and 4 chambered stomach presence indicates it was useful in some ancestor genes have been modified or turned off evidence of common

44 EMBRYOLOGY embryo development similar in many species indicates common ancestor and genetics

45 BIOCHEMICAL SIMILARITIES similarity of proteins (hemoglobin) and RNA and DNA molecules the more similar the proteins are in different species, the more closely related they are indicates common ancestor and genetics

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