Unit 3: Control and regulation Higher Biology

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1 Unit 3: Control and regulation Higher Biology

2 To study the roles that genes play in the control of growth and development of organisms

3 To be able to Give some examples of features which are controlled by genes Explain why different characteristics arise Describe the mechanism and control of the lac operon in E. coli Explain how the inability to produce a specific enzyme results in a disease called phenylketonuria.

4 Structure and function of cells are controlled by genes What is a gene? What does it code for? Why does gene action need to be controlled?

5 Genes code for the protein To prevent resources being wasted, genes that code for proteins that are only required under certain circumstances, are switched on and switched off as required.

6 glucose galactose Lactose ß- galactosidase glucose + galactose

7 The enzyme β-galactosidase can be immobilised in gel. Milk lacks glucose at the start of the experiment but does contain glucose after contact with β-galactosidase. Conclusion the enzyme has promoted the breakdown of lactose into glucose and galactose

8 explain genetic control of protein production in a prokaryote using the lac operon

9 E. coli is capable of synthesising a variety of different enzymes, depending on their environment. E. coli only produce enzymes needed to metabolise lactose when lactose is present in the substrate ß-galactosidase: catalyses hydrolysis of lactose. Lactose permease: transports lactose into the cell.

10 Process of switching a gene on is enzyme induction Operon consists of Structural genes Operator gene Repressor molecule is coded for by a regulator gene

11 The lac operon expression of genes promoter Operator gene β-galactosidase Lactose permease Structural genes The lac operon

12 Structural gene remains switched off and DNA is not transcribed The bacteria does not waste resources making the lactose-digesting enzyme when no lactose is present

13 Control of activity of the lac operon RNA polymerase promoter oper ator STRUCTURAL GENES Repressor Molecule RNA polymerase is prevented from binding to promoter due to repressor protein

14 Induction of β-galactosidase Lactose is the inducer preventing the repressor molecule to bind to the operator gene. Structural gene switches on and DNA is transcribed

15 Lactose binds to repressor, causing it to change shape, so that it no longer binds to DNA. RNA polymerase binds to promoter gene and transcription begins STRUCTURAL GENES

16 The operon consists of several genes Regulatory gene for lac operon Control sites Structural genes P: Promoter region. RNA polymerase binds here to start transcription of Z & Y. O: Operator region. Switches Z & Y on and off. Z: Codes for ß-galactosidase. Y: Codes for lactose permease.

17 What Happens Without Lactose? mrna ribosome repressor protein Regulator gene is expressed and produces REPRESSOR PROTEIN. One binding site on Repressor protein binds to operator region, covering promoter region where RNA polymerase would attach. RNA polymerase cannot bind to promoter region and neither gene Z or Y is expressed.

18 What Happens With Lactose? lactose ß-galactosidase Lactose permease Lactose binds to other binding site on repressor protein, changing the shape. Repressor protein cannot bind to operator region RNA polymerase binds to promoter region and genes Z & Y are expressed.

19 Metabolism All chemical reactions that occur in a living organism Cell metabolism All biochemical reactions within a cell Metabolic pathway Several stages Conversion of one metabolite to another during a synthesis or breaking-down process.

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21 A mutated recessive allele that means one of the enzymes in the metabolic pathway is not produced in its normal state. The step in the metabolic pathway is not completed An intermediate metabolite starts to accumulate.

22 Normal fate of phenylalanine

23 in PKU, the sufferer lacks the gene to make enzyme 1 Phenylalanine not converted tyrosine, toxins made instead, which affect metabolism in brain cells and can limit mental development. All newborn babies are screened for PKU Advised to keep a diet low in Phenylalanine

24 Unable to make gene 3 do not synthesise melanin

25 As development continues from a zygote, differentiation occurs and cells become specialised.

26 Amphibian Nucleus removed from an intestinal cell transplanted into a enucleated fertilised egg Can grow into an adult frog Dolly the sheep Nucleus from udder cell transplanted into a enucleated egg cell Transplanted into a surrogate Dolly was genetically identical to the 6- year-old ewe that donated the udder cell

27 Genes can be separated into two categories expressed in all cells and code for vital metabolites genes only switched on in specific cells, other genes not needed remain permanently switched off.

28 Blood The different types of blood cell differentiate from a blood stem cell by the switching on of repressed genes. Stem cells Undifferentiated cells Capable of self renewing Can specialise into many different cell types Embryonic stem cell research

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