2002NSC Human Physiology Semester Summary

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1 2002NSC Human Physiology Semester Summary Griffith University, Nathan Campus Semester 1, 2014 Topics include: - Diffusion, Membranes & Action Potentials - Fundamentals of the Nervous System - Neuroanatomy - Fertilization & Implantation - Gastrulation, Neurulation, Arterial System Development, Mesoderm Derivatives, Limb Budding & Development of the Skull - Male Reproductive System - Female Reproductive System - Digestive System

2 Diffusion Solute= the minor component of a solution Solvent= the major component of a solution Solution= a liquid mixture in which the minor component (the solute) is uniformly distributed within the major component (the solvent) Diffusion Flux The net movement of particles across a specified area in a specified period of time (movement/time) - A measure of random movement Diffusion Still the flux of molecules but influenced by concentration gradient - diffusion is the net flux of particles down a concentration gradient dur to random movement o As described by Fick s first law- diffusive flux is proportional to how steep the gradient is Diffusion causes an increase in particle movement (entropy increase, therefore energetically favourable) Gradient - When concentration is high, average distance moved my molecules is small - When concentration is low, average distance moved my molecules is high Permeability Permeability (P) is affected by: - Diffusion coefficient (D) o Particle size and the solution it s in o D= P - Thickness of the membrane (Δx) o Thinner membranes are faster to cross o Δx= P - Constant (K) o o Permeability increases for slippery molecules- high K Lipophilic (hydrophobic)= high K Hydrophilic= low K Charged particles (salt ions, polar molecules)= low k K = P From this- P = KD x Membrane transport Intracellular Extracellular - Dramatic differences in solute concentration o Intracellular fluid high in K+ o Extracellular fluid high in Na+ and Cl- - Cell maintains solute concentration through selective permeability/sodium-potassium pumps Passive Processes Do not require any energy input - Two types: diffusion and filtration Simple diffusion Nonpolar lipid-soluble (hydrophobic) substances diffuse directly through phospholipid bilayer - Eg. oxygen, carbon dioxide, fat-soluble vitamins

3 Facilitated diffusion - Some solutes have low value of K (membrane is less permeable) - Certain lipophobic molecules can be transported passively: o o Carrier-mediated: binding to protein carrier Cell-mediated: through aqueous channel formed by transmembrane proteins Leaky channels- always open Gated channels- told when to open or close Ligand (chemical) gated Voltage gated Osmosis Movement of solvent (water) across selectively permeable membrane - Through lipid bilayer - Through specific water channels called aquaporins (AQPs) Active processes Require energy input - Two types: active and vesicular Primary active transport- requires energy directly from ATP hydrolysis Secondary active transport- requires energy indirectly from ionic gradients created by primary active transport Sodium-Potassium pump Slow leakage, works as antiporter (transports two molecules in opposite directions) - Maintains high intracellular K+ concentration and high extracellular Na+ concentration - Maintains electrochemical gradient - Allows cell to maintain fluid volume (due do osmosis) Continuously ejects 3 Na+ from cell and carries 2 K+ in

4 Chemical Gradient If membrane is permeable, then chemical gradient will be the driving force - Solute moves until driving force disappears (equilibrium) Voltage Gradient Membrane potential/voltage is the electrical potential energy resulting from separation of charged particles - Particles move from high potential to low potential When a channel is open, IC and EC conditions influence each other Two major differences between IC and EC: - Ion concentration o Each ion has its own concentration gradient - Voltage gradient o Charged particle move down their voltage gradient Voltage and chemical gradients will oppose each other and drive ions in opposite directions Since ions are both charged and dissolved particles, these two different gradients influence their movement - At equilibrium, voltage and chemical gradient are balanced o Net ion movement=0 Factors which influence equilibrium point: - Number of ions present - Ratio of concentrations from inside to outside - Permeability of ions present

5 Electrochemical Potential IC more positive than EC= positive voltage potential IC more negative than EC= negative voltage potential - Open channels allow IC and EC conditions to affect each other - As K+ leaves cell, IC becomes more negative which pulls K+ back in Goldman Equation Equation needs: - EC and IC concentrations of all relevant ions - Permeability s - Ratio of inside to outside Equation can be simplified if membrane is only permeable to a single ion: (eg. K+) If K+ and Na+ channels were open, with IC [K+] high and EC [Na+] high: Nernst Equation Nernst potential= electrical potential difference needed for ion to be at equilibrium - Each ion has its own Nernst potential - Permeability affects the Nernst equation o If membrane is more permeable to Na+, then membrane potential will be pushed towards Nernst potential for sodium (likewise for K+) Voltage potential (mv) K+ Nernst potential -90mV Na+ Nernst potential +72mV Resting cell membrane potential -60 to -80mV (70mV) Generation of Resting Membrane Potential (RMP) Produced by separation of oppositely charged particle across membrane (voltage) - Cells describes as polarised K+ can freely diffuse out of the cell along concentration gradient through leakage channels - Protein anions are unable to follow loss of positive charge makes cell more negative - RMP most affected by K+ as it is the only ion membrane is constantly permeable to Na+ strongly attracted to cell interior by its concentration gradient - Brings resting membrane potential to -70mV Active transport (sodium-potassium pump) maintains both the membrane potential and osmotic balance

6 Action Potentials Neuron and muscle cells upset RMP by opening gated Na+ and K+ channels - Allows communication between neurons and other neurons/muscle cells

7 Membrane and Action Potentials Nernst Equation (one step further) Leakage channels enable K+ to move out of cell down its chemical gradient - High IC K+ concentration due to Na-K pump Potential difference across resting membrane= negative IC and positive EC - Due to net flux of K+ out of cell, leaving more anions IC - K does not flood out constantly as RMP is close to its Nernst value (E K) Steps of an Action Potential 1. Ligand gated sodium channels after binding of ligand o Na+ floods into cell (driven by both chemical/voltage gradient) High EC Na+ concentration Nernst potential for Na+ is =72mv, therefore will assist in pulling Na+ in o Influx of Na+ depolarises membrane (IC becomes more positive) o Once membrane potential reaches threshold of -55mV, Na+ voltage gated channels open Action potential ensues 2. At membrane potential of +30mV: o Na+ voltage gated channels close o K+ voltage gated channels open 3. Inside of cell now very positive, outside negative o Voltage gradient pull positive charge out of cell o Since Na+ channels have closed, only have K+ can leave At +30mV, K+ is very far from its Nernst potential, therefore- very strong driving force 4. K+ movement out of cell o Causes repolarisation 5. Cell hyperpolarises (membrane potential drops below RMP) o Leakage K+ channels let more K+ out as K+ tries to reach Nernst potential o Na-K pump brings K+ back into cell restoring RMP

8 Membrane Potential and Intercellular Communication Changes in membrane potential enable cells to communicate Graded Potentials Actions Potentials Depending on stimulus, potentials can be: Cause membrane depolarisation - Depolarizing (excitatory) - Repolarizing (inhibitory) Duration may be milliseconds to seconds Lasts milliseconds Responds to range of stimuli: Initiated by changed in membrane potential - Ligands - Threshold must be reached (-55mV) - Mechanosensitive - All or nothing - Temperature sensitive - Cytoplasmic signalling molecules Ions involved are Na+, K+, Cl- Ions involved are Na+, K+ Travel by passive spread (electrotonic spread) Require opening/closing of voltage gated channels No refractory period (does not have to start from RMP) Have a refractory period (must reach RMP before firing) Temporal and special summation No summation Amplitude diminishes over distance Amplitude remains constant - decremental conduction Amplitude dependent on strength of stimulus Amplitude is all or nothing Small amplitude around ~+/-20mV Large amplitude of ~+100mV Graded Potentials External stimuli (sensory neurons) or neurotransmitters (synapses) cause GP in post-synaptic cell - If potential reaches threshold, action potential will fire - Potentials can be excitatory or inhibitory o EPSP= Excitatory post-synaptic potentials (depolarisation) o IPSP= Inhibitory post-synaptic potentials (hyperpolarisation) Can occur in any region of cell plasma membrane - In neurons, GP only occur in specialised regions of synaptic contact: o Post-synaptic plasma membrane in dendrites or soma o Sensory membrane regions

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