LEARNING OBJECTIVES FOR BY 124 EXAM Distinguish between osmoregulators and osmoconformers. Give an example of each.

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1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES FOR BY 124 EXAM 4 CHAPTER Distinguish between osmoregulators and osmoconformers. Give an example of each. 2. Discuss the problems that marine organisms, freshwater organisms, and terrestrial organisms face in maintaining homeostasis. Explain what osmoregulatory adaptations serve as solutions to these problems. 3. Explain the role of transport epithelia in osmoregulation. 4. Describe how freshwater protozoa osmoregulate. 5. Describe how a protomephridial system functions. Give an example of an organism that uses this type of excretory system. 6. Explain how the metanephridial excretory tubule functions and describe any structural advances over a protonephridial system. Give an example of an organism that uses each system. 7. Explain how the Malpighian tubule excretory system functions. Give an example of an organism that has this type of excretory system. What advantage does this system have in a terrestrial environment? 8. Describe the osmoregulation differences between saltwater bony fishes and freshwater fishes. 9. How do sharks differ from the boney marine fish in how they osmoregulate? 10. Where does the nitrogenous waste in animals come from? What are the 3 major ways that animals get rid of this waste? Give examples of animals in each of the 3 groups and how it relates to their habitats. 11. Using a diagram, identify and give the function of each structure in the mammalian excretory systems. 12. Describe and show the relationship among the processes of filtration, secretion, and reabsorption. 13. Describe the blood circulation associated with the nephron.

2 14. Know everything about the nephron diagram we discussed in class. Know what substances move each way. Know if these substances move by active or passive transport. 15. Explain how the loop of Henle enhances water conservation by the kidneys. 16. Describe the mechanisms involves with the hormonal regulation of the kidney. 17. What is meant by threshold when discussing the kidney? 18. Relate how the structure of the nephrons differs in certain animals. CHAPTER Distinguish between asexual and sexual reproduction. 2. List and describe three forms of asexual reproduction. 3. Explain why asexual reproduction may be advantageous for a population of organisms living in a stable, favorable environment. 4. Know the major environmental cues, we discussed in relation to reproduction. 5. Explain the advantages of sexual reproduction. 6. Distinguish between parthenogenesis, hermaphroditism and sequential hermaphroditism. 7. Understand the differences between external and internal fertilization. Know what animals have each. 8. What are pheromones? How do they relate to reproduction? 9. Describe three mechanisms which increase the probability of successful fertilization that are found in organisms that use external fertilization. 10. Understand the reproductive behavior of the whiptail lizards. 11. Using a diagram, identify and give the functions of each component of the reproductive system of the human male. 12. Discuss the hormonal control of reproduction in male mammals.

3 13. Describe spermatogenesis. 14. Describe the anatomy of a mature sperm. 15. Using a diagram, identify and give the fruitions of each component of the reproductive system of the human female. 16. Explain the differences between estrous cycles and menstrual cycles. 17. Be able to draw and explain the ovarian and uterine (menstrual) cycle in detail. Be able to relate the hypothalamic and pituitary and gonadal hormones. This is the diagram in the book that we spent so much time on. 18. Describe oogenesis. 19. Compare and contrast oogenesis and spermatogenesis. 20. What happens in puberty in human males and females. 21. What are induced ovulators? How does it work hormonally? Give examples of animals which have induced ovulation. 22. Describe the following embryonic stages. Know important functions of each. A. Cleavage B. Blastula C. Gastrula 23. Where does fertilization occur in humans? 24.. Draw and label a human blastocyst. What does each layer become? 25. What prevents the start of the menstrual cycle when fertilization occurs? 26. Describe a human placenta and show how the organ has contributions from both the mother and the fertilized egg. 27. Describe the three stages of birth. 28. Describe the hormonal basis of the birth process. 29 List three hypothesis that explain why the mom does not reject the fetus.

4 30. Describe the basis structure of the human mammary gland. What hormones are involved in milk production? Why is milk not produced during pregnancy? 31. What is menopause? What causes it? 32. List the various methods of contraception and explain how they work. CHAPTER What is capacitation? 2. What is the function of hyaluronadase. 3. Describe how the sperm binds to the egg. Include in your answer the acrosomal reaction and the role of ZP2 and 3 4. How is polyspermy prevented? Be able to discuss this in detail. 5. Describe the changes that occur in an activated egg. 6. Be able to completely explain the role of the gray crescent in frog eggs. 7. Describe the process of gastrulation in humans and explain its importance. 8. List the adult structures derived from each of the primary tissue layers. 9. Explain in detail the experiment of Spemann and Mangold concerning gastrulation. 10. List and explain the extraembryonic membranes in birds and compare this to those in placental mammals. 11. What are the three processes that are involved in development? 12. Describe in detail the neural tube formation. Include in your answer the role of somites. 13. What is apoptosis and how does it play a role in development. 14. Be able to list several known human teratogens. When is the major critical period in humans for the production of birth defects.

5 CHAPTER Compare the two coordinating systems of the human body in terms of the 4 distinct stages. 2. Be able to list the differences between invertebrate and vertebrate nervous systems. 3. List and describe the three major parts of a neuron and explain the function of each. 4. Describe the function and location of each type of supporting cells. 5. Define the terms nuclei and ganglia. What is the difference between these? 6. What causes the membrane potential in nerve cells? 7. What cells are considered to be excitable cells. 8. Define the following terms that relate to neurons. A. Graded potentials B. Resting potential C. Action potential D. Hyperpolarize E. Depolarize F. Impulse G. Threshold 9. Be able to describe in detail the 4 phases of an action potential. This is the diagram in your book that we spent so much time on. 10. Explain how the action potential is propagated along the neuron. 11. Describe two things that affect the transmission of an impulse. 12. What is the difference between electrical and chemical synapses? 13. Describe in detail how an impulse goes from one neuron to another. 13. What are EPSP and IPSP? How do they affect the post synaptic membrane? 14. What are the two types of summation? Be able to discuss how each works. 15. What are the 4 major groups of neurotransmitters? Know the specific ones I told you in class.

6 16. Distinguish between sensory, motor and interneurons. CHAPTER Understand the differences between the somatic and the autonomic nervous system. 2. List the major components in the central nervous system 3. Distinguish between white and gray matter. 4. Describe the knee jerk response. 5. Briefly describe the differences in the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. CHAPTER Describe how hydrostatic skeletons work. Give examples of animals that have them. 2. Using a diagram, identify the basic components of skeletal muscle. 3. Explain how a muscle contacts according to the sliding filament model of contraction. Explain the role of actin and myosin. 4. What is the role of troponin, tropomyosin and calcium in muscle contraction. 5. Beginning with a motor neuron, describe the molecular basis of how a muscle contracts. This is the diagram we spent time on in class. 6. What is the role of motor units in vertebrate skeletal muscle?

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