Mitosis and Meiosis Cell growth and division
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1 Mitosis and Meiosis Cell growth and division The larger the cell, the more trouble the cell has moving nutrients and waste across the cell membrane. 1. DNA/information overload As a cell increases in size, it does not make extra copies of its DNA. Cell size is limited by its DNA, if the cell gets too big the DNA would no longer be able to serve the needs of the cell. 2. Exchanging materials materials enter and exit a cell through the cell membrane. Surface area the total area of the cell membrane The rate at which materials can be exchanged depends on the surface area. The rate at which materials are used up and waste is produced depends on the cell s volume. Ratio of Surface Area to Volume Surface area L x W x number of sides Volume L x W x H If a cell has a length of 1 cm, width of 1 cm, height of 1 cm, and 6 sides, its surface area would be 6 cm 2 its volume would be 1 cm 3 The ratio of surface area to volume in this example cell would be 6:1. If the cell increase in size, its volume increases faster than the surface area. This makes it more difficult for the cell to move needed materials in and waste products out. Goal of the cell: have a large ratio of surface area to volume. 1
2 Prevention from getting too big Before a cell gets too big, it will split or divide in half. A parent cell forms two new daughter cells. A cell must copy all its DNA before division to ensure that each cell is the same, thus each daughter cell has their own copy of DNA, both identical to the other. Genes DNA contains the information needed to direct a cell s activities. DNA is composed of genes segments of DNA that encode a protein. Are transmitted info from parent to offspring. 1 DNA strand contains 1000 s of genes. Prokaryotic chromosomes Most prokaryotes have a single circular DNA molecule, or chromosome. Chromosomes structures that contain the genetic information that is passed on from one generation of cells to the next. Found in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes. Folded into a space about 1/1000 th smaller than a prokaryote s length. Eukaryotic chromosomes Most eukaryotes have as much as 1,000 times the amount of DNA as prokaryotes. Eukaryotic DNA is primarily located in the nucleus in the form of multiple chromosomes. DNA molecules are extremely long. Eukaryotes have even more DNA so the cell had to have a way to fit it all in the nucleus. Chromosomes contain both DNA and proteins. Chromatin DNA that is tightly coiled around proteins called histones. Nucleosomes Beaded structure composed of multiple histones with associated DNA. During mitosis the histones cause the fibers of the chromosome to coil up and packed into the structures that you can see. 2
3 Chromosomes are 40% DNA and 60% protein. Chromosomes copy themselves during DNA replication forming sister chromatids. Chromosomes must copy themselves so that the new cell gets the same info as the old cell. Sister chromatids are attached by a centromere. PROKARYOTIC CELLS SIMPLY SPLIT Bacteria are prokaryotes lacking nuclei. Bacterial DNA is a circular chromosome. DNA unzips making 2 strands and each strand is copied giving 2 identical copies of DNA. PROKARYOTIC CELLS SIMPLY SPLIT Bacterial cell grows and then splits into equal halves. This is called binary fission. Product of binary fission 2 identical bacterial cells. EUKARYOTIC CELL CYCLE Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus, so they must undergo nuclear division. Cell cycle repeating sequences of growth and division through which many kinds of eukaryotic cells pass. INTERPHASE G1 rapid cell growth, a cell is in this part of the cell cycle for the longest period of time between cell divisions. S DNA is copied, chromosome replicated is now two sister chromatids joined at centromere. 3
4 INTERPHASE G2 Organelles replicate, microtubules are reassembled to form spindle apparatus that will move chromosomes, cell is now prepared for mitosis. This is the shortest phase of interphase. An eukaryotic cell spends most of its time in Interphase. CELL CYCLE - MITOSIS Mitosis the process by which the nucleus of a cell is divided into two nuclei, each with the same number of chromosomes. Misconception mitosis IS NOT cell division, it is a part of cell division! CYTOKINESIS Cytokinesis the division of the cytoplasm. This is the last step of cell division. After cytokinesis is complete, the cell will be in Interphase again. MITOSIS Biologists divide the events of mitosis into four phases: 1. Prophase 2. Metaphase 3. Anaphase 4. Telophase PROPHASE Chromosomes condense and become visible. Centrioles form and take up positions on opposite ends of the nucleus. Spindle becomes visible. Nuclear membrane breaks down, and the nucleolus disappears. METAPHASE Spindle fibers assist in moving the chromosomes to the equator (middle) of the cell. The centromeres of all the sister chromatids line up. The imaginary line that bisects each of the chromatids through the centromere is called the metaphase plate. 4
5 ANAPHASE Sister chromatids separate from each other at the centromere. The spindle now pulls each chromosome to opposite ends of the cell (toward the centrioles). The spindle is taken apart as the chromosomes move. Each pole now has one complete set of chromosomes. TELOPHASE Chromosomes uncoil, spindle fibers disappear, and the nuclear membrane reforms. Mitosis is complete. CYTOKINESIS Cytoplasm of original cell is split in half. Cell membrane grows to enclose both cells. Animal cells pinch in the membranes forming a cleavage furrow. Plant cells form a cell plate to split the cytoplasm. CYTOKINESIS (continued) Plant cells form a cell plate at the equator of the cell where new cell wall forms on both sides of the plate. The plate is formed from secretions of the golgi. The product is two identical cells. Following cytokinesis, the cell re-enters interphase at the G1 phase, and the cell cycle continues. 5
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