Prvi biokemijski komplet: Življenjska števila

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1 Prvi biokemijski komplet: Življenjska števila S prvim biokemijskim kompletom boš spoznal zgodbo o življenjskih številih. Ta števila so 1 (zate), 2 (za tvoje gene), 4 (za gradnike DNK in RNK) ter 20 (za gradnike beljakovin). DNK, RNK in še proteini... Ojoj! Sam lahko sestaviš biološke molekule! No, ali pa vsaj njihove modele. Za takojšnji začetek obrni na stran številka 6 (Hitri začetek). Tam najdeš osnovna navodila za sestavljanje molekul s kompletom Zometool, v pomoč pa ti bodo tudi karte s slikami in opisi posameznih molekul. Osredotočili se bomo na DNK (deoksiribonukleinsko kislino), RNK (ribonukleinsko kislino) in beljakovine (imenovane tudi proteini). Bioloških molekul je seveda še veliko več, a skoraj vse nastajajo ob pomoči proteinov; informacija o zgradbi proteinov je shranjena v DNK in RNK (temu pravimo tudi, da nukleinske kisline kodirajo proteine). S tem kompletom boš sestavljal osnovne gradnike (monomere), ki se združujejo v velike molekule DNK, RNK in proteine. Takšne velike in zapletene molekule imenujemo polimeri. Življenja brez DNK, RNK in proteinov si ne moremo predstavljati. Te čudovite zapletene molekule raziskujemo, da bi razumeli življenjske procese. Polimer je večja molekula, sestavljena iz medsebojno povezanih enakih ali podobnih molekul (osnovnih gradnikov ali monomerov). Z variacijo relativno majhnega števila različnih osnovnih gradnikov v zaporedju polimerov je Narava ustvarila neverjetno raznolike biološke molekule, ki opravljajo raznovrstne naloge. Centralna dogma. Osnovni princip ali centralna dogma molekularne biologije pravi, da je poglavitna naloga genov (torej odsekov molekule DNK), da kodirajo proteine. Informacija, shranjena na DNK, se ne prevede neposredno v proteine, temveč za to potrebuje posrednike, molekule RNK. Z drugimi besedami: molekula DNK nosi v svoji strukturi informacijo za sintezo končnega proizvoda (proteina), molekula RNK pa predstavlja nekakšnega sporočevalca ali prenašalca takšne infomacije. DNK RNK protein Življenje je enostavno kot 1, 2, 4, 20!. Če nekoliko poenostavimo, lahko gledamo na življenje skozi prizmo štirih števil: 1 je zate! Si živo bitje, ki ji na svetu ni para! 2 je za tvoja starša in dva niza genov, ki si ju podedoval po njiju. Geni se nahajajo na molekulah DNK in se prepisujejo (izražajo) v molekule RNK. 4 je za po štiri osnovne gradnike molekul DNK (G, C, A in T) in RNK (G, C, A in U). DNK in RNK kodirata proteine oziroma zaporedje aminokislinskih gradnikov v proteinih. 20 je za dvajset osnovnih gradnikov proteinov, aminokislin. Vsi proteini v tvojem telesu so zgrajeni iz vsega dvajset različnih aminokislin, seveda v različnih razmerjih in v drugačnih zaporedjih le-teh. 1

2 Jaz sem en sam!. Število 1 predstavlja tebe, povsem edinstveno bitje. Le enojajčni dvojčki imajo povsem enak dedni zapis, sicer ti (vsaj z genetskega vidika) ni para na vsem svetu! Kar te dela tako posebnega, je nabor genov v vsaki celici tvojega telesa. V genih je zapisan načrt, ki določa razvoj in delovanje vseh živih bitij. In ker je tvoj načrt edinstven, si tudi ti en sam in neponovljiv. Strukture bioloških molekul so enostavne, a zato nič manj osupljive. Prav neverjetno pa je, kako posamezne molekule sestavljajo živa bitja. Znanost še vedno nima vseh odgovorov na ta in podobna vprašanja. Sodeluj pri reševanju zagonetk še sam! Hvala, mami in oči!. Število 2 predstavlja tvoja starša in dva niza genov, ki si ju podedoval po njiju in pomenita podroben načrt za razvoj in delovanje tvojega telesa. Tudi tvoja straša sta podedovala gene po svojih starših (tvojih starih starših), ti po svojih in tako nazaj. V jedru vsake celice tvojega telesa so kromosomi, katerih najpomembnejša sestavina je DNK. Geni so nanizani na molekuli DNK. Informacija, shranjena v genih, je zapisana z značilnim zaporedjem osnovnih gradnikov DNK (nukleotidov) oz. njihovih baz. Preprosta življenjska koda. Lahko bi rekli, da je načrt za življenje zapisan z le štirimi (4) osnovnimi gradniki DNK oz. nukleinskimi bazami le-teh (nukleinske baze so del nukleotidov). Baze označujemo s štirimi črkami: G za gvanin, C za citozin, A za adenin in T za timin. V dvoverižni DNK se baze povezujejo med sabo s posebnimi vezmi (A se poveže s T na sosednji verigi, G pa s C) in tako tvorijo nekakšne letvice na zaviti lestvi, slavni dvojni vijačnici DNK. V en sam polimer DNK je povezano več milijonov nukleotidov (in s tem enako število baz), vsaka tvoja celica pa vsebuje več milijard baznih parov, kar je približno toliko, kot je vseh ljudi na Zemlji! DNK ima obliko vijačnice: nukleinske baze, ki potekajo vzdolž vsake od verig DNK, se med sabo povezujejo (A se poveže s T na sosednji verigi, G pa s C) in tako vzdržujejo strukturo dvojne vijačnice. Ujemi življenje na nivoju molekul! Oglej si strukture bioloških molekul na priloženih kartah in še sam sestavi modele molekule iz kroglic, ki ponazarjajo atome, ter paličic, ki predstavljajo medatomske vezi. 2

3 Tudi molekule RNK so zgrajene iz štirih (4) različnih osnovnih gradnikov (in tako štirih nukleinskih baz). Vedno kadar celica potrebuje določen protein, tvori najprej ustrezne molekule RNK. Te nastajajo kot prepis informacije, shranjene v DNK (osnovnih navodil za pripravo proteina), zato proces nastajanja RNK imenujemo prepisovanje ali transkripcija. RNK v celici prenese sporočilo o tem, kateri protein naj celica naredi. Sporočilo v RNK je zelo podobno tistemu na DNK, le da namesto nukleinske baze timina (T) v RNK nastopa uracil (U). RNK se od DNK razlikuje tudi po tem, da praviloma ne tvori dvojne vijačnice, temveč je sestavljena iz le ene verige, ki jo gradijo nukleotidi z bazami G, C, A in U. Ponazoritev transkripcije: DNK RNK Gradniki življenja. Kakšno sporočilo je pravzaprav zapisano na molekulah DNK? Na DNK (in seveda RNK) je kodiran zapis za dvajset (20) aminokislin. Aminokisline so osnovni gradniki proteinov. S povezovanjem različnih aminokislin nastanejo proteini najrazličnejših oblik, ki v celici opravljajo razne življenjsko pomembne naloge. V posebnih celičnih»tovarnah«(imenovanih ribosomi) se informacija, ki jo prinesejo molekule RNK, prevede v zaporedje aminokislin in tu nastajajo proteini. Proces pretvorbe kode na RNK v protein imenujemo prevajanje genske informacije ali translacija. Že ime samo nakazuje, da se»jezik«dnk in RNK razlikuje od»jezika«proteinov in da prenešeno sporočilo zahteva prevod. Ponazoritev translacije: RNK protein 3

4 Dvajset aminokislin, združenih v polimer (protein) Razvozlajmo genetski kod. Genetski kod,»jezik«v katerem je zapisana informacija na DNK in RNK, je univerzalen, kar pomeni, da je enak pri vseh živih bitjih. Z zaporedjem nukleinskih baz v RNK je določeno zaporedje aminokislin v proteinih: niz treh zaporednih baz (imenovan kodon) zapisuje informacijo za določeno aminokislino (torej navodilo o tem, katero aminokislino naj celica vgradi na določeno mesto v nastajajočem proteinu). Naslednji kodon nosi informacijo za sledečo aminokislino in tako naprej. Vsaka od dvajsetih aminokislin ima vsaj en pripadajoč kodon. Ker so nukleinske baze štiri, je različnih kodonov 64 (po štiri mogoče baze na treh položajih kodona: = 64), torej več kot dovolj za zapis vseh aminokislin. Ob kodonih, ki označujejo posamezne aminokisline, poznamo tudi kodone, ki so znak za začetek in konec nastajanja verige aminokislin. Razvozlaj genetski kod: Tričrkovne oznake v tabeli predstavljajo posamezne vrste aminokislin: Phe fenilalanin Leu levcin Ile izolevcin Met metionin Val valin Ser serin Pro prolin Thr treonin Ala alanin Tyr tirozin His histidin Gln glutamin Asn asparagin Lys lizin Asp asparaginska kislina Glu glutaminska kislina Cys cistein Trp triptofan Arg arginin Gly glicin STOP zaključni kodon 4

5 Proteini se lahko močno razlikujejo tako po obliki kot po nalogah, ki jih opravljajo vse po zaslugi razlik v zaporedju v verigo nanizanih aminokislinskih gradnikov. Nekatere aminokisline so velike, druge majhne, nekatere nosijo pozitiven ali negativen naboj, spet druge so nepolarne. Raznovrstnost proteinov se zrcali v neverjetni raznolikosti živih bitij. Vse življenjske oblike so povezane. Opisane biološke molekule srečamo v prav vseh živih bitjih na Zemlji. Življenjske procese nadzira in vodi enak genetski kod in Narava uporablja povsem enake gradnike pri vseh organizmih. Še več: številne živalske vrste se genetsko ujemajo s človekom v več kot 90 odstotkih! Karte z biološkimi molekulami. Nauči se graditi modele bioloških molekul s priloženimi kartami. V kompletu je 28 različnih kart: 20 kart za aminokisline, 5 kart za nukleinske baze (G, C, A, T in U) ter 3 karte za preostale sestavine nukleotidov (fosfatno skupino ter sladkorja ribozo in deoksiribozo). Življenje ni ravninsko. Imena in okrajšave molekul so označene na vrhu kart. V sredini je slika modela molekule. Pri sestavljanju modelov sledi tej sliki, a bodi pozoren na to, da je slika dvodimenzionalna (ravninska), molekule pa tridimenzionalne (prostorske)! Pri sestavljanju seveda uporabi tudi znanje o zgradbi molekul, ki si ga osvojil pri pouku kemije in biologije. Karte aminokislin. Na kartah, ki opisujejo aminokisline, so (z izjemo glicina) molekule razstavljene na dva dela, na kar opozarja oznaka»aa-r«(angl. amino acid residue aminokislinski ostanek ali stranska veriga). Vse aminokisline imajo namreč del, ki je enak (zgornja slika; vključuje karboksilno in aminsko skupino, vezani na t.i. alfa-c-atom) in del, ki je značilen za posamezno aminokislino (spodnja slika; t.i. stranska veriga aminokisline (R)). Popolno aminokislino sestaviš tako, da oba dela povežeš prek označenih prostih vezi. Aminokislina glicin je posebnež v tem, da nima stranske skupine oz. le to predstavlja kar vodikov atom (H). Glicin najpreprostejša aminokislina in zato prikazan z modelom celotne molekule. 5

6 Hitri začetek. 1. Dobro si oglej model molekule na karti. 2. Poišči sestavne dele (kroglice in paličice), ki jih potrebuješ za gradnjo modela molekule (označeno pod molekulsko formulo spojine). 3. Sestavi svoj model molekule. 4. Primerjaj svoj model s sliko na karti. 5. Pokaži model še svojim prijateljem. aminokislina alanin Števila 1, 2, 4 in 20 nas vodijo od tebe (1) do načrta, ki si ga podedoval po starših (genov, 2), molekul, ki načrt kodirajo (DNK ali RNK, 4) in nas končno privedejo do gradnikov (aminokislin, 20), ki so zapisane v načrtu. 6

7 PRAVILA ZOMETOOL-a 1 Ničesar ne sestavljaj na silo! Če se komponente kompleta prilegajo, se prilegajo popolnoma. Paličice lahko sicer nežno zviješ, da jih spraviš na želeno mesto, a v končanem modelu naj bodo vselej povsem ravne. Še nasvet: enostaven način, da ugotoviš, s katero paličico lahko povežeš dve kroglici v modelu, je, da kroglici poravnaš in pogledaš skozi luknjici. Iz oblike lukenj prepoznaš ustrezno paličico. 2 Modele razstavljaj z občutkom! Modele najlažje razstaviš tako, da objameš paličico s prsti in nežno potisneš kroglico s palcem. Kroglic nikoli ne poskušaj odviti s paličic. Velike modele najhitreje razstaviš tako, da najprej odstraniš vse najdaljše paličice iste barve, nato pa se postopno lotiš krajših. 3 Počisti za sabo. Ko končaš, pospravi za seboj in prepusti Zometool še drugim. US Patents RE 33,785; 6,840,699 B2. Zometool is a registered trademark of Zometool Inc. Based on the 31-zone system, discovered by Steve Baer, Zomeworks Corp., USA 2009 Prevod: Logika d.o.o.,

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