3.a.2- Cell Cycle and Meiosis
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1 Big Idea 3: Living systems store, retrieve, transmit and respond to information essential to life processes. 3.a.2- Cell Cycle and Meiosis EU 3.A: Heritable information provides for continuity of life. EU 3.B: Expression of genetic information involves cellular and molecular mechanisms. EU 3.C: The processing of genetic information is imperfect and is a source of genetic variation. EU 3.D: Cells communicate by generating, transmitting and receiving chemical signals. EU 3.E: Transmission of information results in changes within and between biological systems. A. The cell cycle is a complex set of stages that is highly regulated with checkpoints, which determine the ultimate fate of the cell. 1. Interphase consists of three phases: growth, synthesis of DNA, preparation for mitosis. a. G1- just prior to DNA replication, when cell grows in size and organelles increase in number. b. S- DNA replication occurs; proteins associated with DNA are also synthesized. c. G2- just prior to cell division; preparation for mitotic cell division (grows). 2. The cell cycle is directed by internal controls or checkpoints. Internal and external signals provide stop-andgo signs at the checkpoints. (Maturation) Promoting Factor (MPF) Action of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) Cancer results from disruptions in cell cycle control 3. Cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases control the cell cycle. 1
2 4. alternates with interphase in the cell cycle. 5. When a cell specializes, it often enters into a stage where it no longer divides, but it can reenter the cell cycle when given appropriate cues. Nondividing cells may exit the cell cycle; or hold at a particular stage in the cell cycle. Cell Cycle Checkpoints Specialized Cells B. passes a complete genome from the parent cell to daughter cells. C. Meiosis, a reduction division, followed by fertilization ensures genetic diversity in sexually reproducing organisms. Purpose Homologous Chromosomes I Fertilization Comparison to Significance Stop Platelet-derived Growth Factors A. Activate signaling pathway involving gene expression, cell cycle and many other processes. B. PDGF is mainly believed to be an important mitogen for connective tissue, especially for fibroblasts that serve in wound healing. C. PDGF has important roles in embryonic development, cell proliferation, cell migration, blood vessel formation (angiogenesis), and the growth of blood vessels from already existing blood vessel tissue. Cancer A. Oncogenes 1. Cancer-causing genes 2. May code for cyclins that no longer function as they should. a. Ordinarily a cyclin combines with its kinase only when a growth factor is present. b. Cyclin that has gone awry combines with its kinase when growth factor is absent, resulting in a tumor. 2
3 Cancer B. Tumor-suppressor genes 1. A family of normal genes that instruct cells to produce proteins that restrain cell growth and division. 2. Loss of such proteins allows a cell to grow and divide in an uncontrolled fashion. C. Benign tumors stay at original site. D. Malignant tumors have the ability to metastasize. Cyclin Proteins A. Cycle at different concentrations in cell division B. Activate cyclin-dependent kinases, which in turn activate enzymes; one destroys cyclin (MPF). C. Kinases that combine with cyclins become activated and regulate the passage of cells through the various stages of the cell cycle. Cdks A. Kinases remove a phosphate group from ATP and add it to another protein. B. The recipient protein (which may be another kinase) becomes activated. C. Enzymes of cell cycle are cyclin dependent because they activate when they combine with cyclin. Other Factors A. Growth factors (regulatory substances) may be necessary. B. Cell density (density dependent inhibition) C. Cell size is main indicator of cell division. Back Cell Cycle Checkpoints A. Cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks) regulate passage of cells through checkpoints B. Three main checkpoints 1. G1 a. Restriction point in animals b. Three Cdk (cyclin dependent kinase) involved 2. G2 (MPF- maturation promoting factor) 3. M (anaphase is checkpoint) Specialized Cells A. Some cells (e.g., skin cells) divide continuously throughout life. B. Other cells (e.g., skeletal muscle cells and nerve cells) are arrested in the G1 stage. C. Still other cells, such as cardiac muscle cells, are arrested in the G2 Stage. D. Cyclic molecule levels create the cell cycle control system 3
4 A. M stage (M = mitosis) is the entire cell division state, including both mitosis and cytokinesis. B. (karyokinesis) followed by cytokinesis produces two genetically identical daughter cells. C. plays a role in growth, repair, and asexual reproduction D. is a continuous process with observable structural features along the mitotic process. E. Order is replication, alignment, separation. F. Phases of 1. Prophase a. Chromatin condenses forming visible chromosomes (held together by a centromere). b. The nucleolus disappears. c. Chromosomes have no particular orientation. d. Spindle begins to assemble as pairs of centrosomes migrate away from each other. e. Short microtubules radiate out from the pair of centrioles located in each centrosome; form starlike asters. f. Chromosomes attach to the spindle (kinetochore fibers). g. Nuclear envelope fragments h. Polar fibers (nonkinetochore fibers) span from centrosome to centrosome. 2. Metaphase a. Chromosomes, attached to kinetochore fibers, are aligned at the metaphase plate. b. Nonattached spindle fibers (polar, nonkinetochore) fibers, overlap. 3. Anaphase a. Sister chromatids separate at centromere. b. Daughter chromatids, each with a centromere, move to opposite poles. c. Polar spindle fibers lengthen as they slide past each other. d. Kinetochore spindle fibers disassemble at the kinetochores; this pulls daughter chromatids to poles. 4
5 4. Telophase a. Spindle disappears. b. Chromotids decondense and return to chromatin. c. Nuclear envelope reforms. d. Nucleoli reappear Cytokinesis A. In Animal Cells 1. Cleavage furrow forms between the two daughter nuclei. 2. Cleavage furrow deepens as band of actin filaments slowly constricts between the two daughter cells. Cytokinesis B. In Plant Cells 1. Golgi apparatus produces vesicles that move to the midpoint between the daughter cell nuclei. 2. Vesicles fuse, forming a cell plate. 3. Vesicles also release molecules that signal the formation of plant cell walls. 4. Later, walls are strengthened by the addition of cellulose fibrils. A. Meiosis ensures that each gamete receives one complete haploid (1n) set of chromosomes. B. Meiosis keeps chromosome number constant in zygote. C. Creates gametes with only one member of each homologous pair. D. Creates genetic variation by crossing over. Purpose of Meiosis Homologous Chromosomes A. In a diploid cell, chromosomes occur as pairs (homologues). B. Homologues 1. Look alike 2. Have same length and centromere position 3. Have similar banding pattern. C. One homologue originates from the maternal parent and the other from the paternal parent. D. Separation of the homologous chromosomes ensures that each gamete receives a haploid (1n) set of chromosomes composed of both maternal and paternal chromosomes. A. Interphase I 1. Chromatin replicates. 2. Centrioles replicate(2 Pairs) 5
6 B. Prophase I 1. Nucleolus disappears; nuclear envelope fragments; centrosomes migrate away from each other; and spindle fibers assemble. 2. Chromatin condenses and chromosomes become microscopically visible. 3. Homologous chromosomes undergo synapsis (pair up) forming tetrads. 4. Homologous chromatids exchange genetic material via a process called crossing over, which increases genetic variation in the resultant gametes. [See also 3.C.2] 5. Homologues are temporarily held together by chiasma, regions where the nonsister chromatids are attached due to crossing-over. C. Metaphase I 1. Tetrads held together by chiasmata are aligned on the metaphase plate. 2. Fully formed spindle. 3. Kinetochores attach to spindle 4. Maternal and paternal homologues are randomly oriented toward opposite poles. D. Anaphase I 1. The homologues of each tetrad separate and move toward opposite poles. 2. Each chromosome still has two chromatids. E. Telophase I and Cytokinesis. 1. Cleavage furrows or cell plates form. 2. Forms 2 haploid cells 3. Interkinesis(in some species) a) This period between meiosis I and meiosis II (similar to interphase of mitosis). b) However, no DNA replication occurs. c) Nuclear envelope reforms and nucleoli reappear. A. Prophase II 1. If cell underwent interkinesis, then nuclei disperse. 2. Spindle forms. B. Metaphase II 1. Haploid number of chromosomes align at metaphase plate. 2. Kinetochores of sister chromatids point to opposite poles. I I C. Anaphase II 1. Centromeres divide 2. Sister chromotids move toward the poles. D. Telophase II and cytokinesis 1. Nuclei form at opposite poles 2. There are four haploid cells. 6
7 Fertilization Comparison of Meiosis with A. Involves the fusion of two gametes B. Increases genetic variation in populations by providing for new combinations of genetic information in the zygote C. Restores the diploid number of chromosomes. Significance of Meiosis A. Produces genetic variation. 1. Variation provides for adaptations to changing environment. 2. Asexual organisms depend primarily on mutations to generate variation B. Keeps chromosome numbers constant in species C. Ensures daughter cells receive one of each kind of gene Significance of Meiosis D. Independent assortment provides 2 n possible combinations of chromosomes in daughter cells. 1. In humans with 23 haploid chromosomes, 2 n = 2 23 = 8,388,608 possible combinations. 2. Variation is added by crossing-over; if only one crossover occurs within each tetrad, 4 23 or 70,368,744,000,000 (70 trillion) combinations are possible. 3. Fertilization also contributes to genetic variation; (2 23 ) 2 = 70,368,744,000,000 possible combinations without crossing-over. 4. With fertilization and crossing-over, (4 23 ) 2 = 4,951,760,200,000,000,000,000,000,000 combinations are possible. 7
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