Cells. Discovery of Cells

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1 Cells Discovery of Cells Robert Hooke Developed crude Looked at under scope Saw small squares, called (after monk s cells) Anton van Leeuwenhoek Greatest Early Good at specimens First saw under a single lens scope 1

2 Cell Theory Living things are composed of Cells are the of structure and function Cells come from cells How Big is a Cell? How Big is a Cell? (diameter = in) 20,000 bacterial cells = 2

3 Why Are Cells So Small? High ratio!! Greater the SURFACE, more stuff gets of cell Greater the VOLUME, less stuff gets in or out; cell or is Characteristics of Cells Size Size varies-most are Bacteria cell à Nerve cellsà Spinal Neuron-Over 3 feet long Sperm Cell- 25 Micrometers 3

4 2 Major Types of Cells Prokaryotic Cell à (usually ) with a small, of DNA. Usually Eukaryotic Cell à cells with functions and structures. Always Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cells In this unit we will study cells Microbiology = cells are eukaryotic cells Multi-cellular organisms are usually made from many different types of cells ( ) 4

5 3 Major Parts of the Eukaryotic Cell major parts of cells: Plasma Membrane Controls passage of materials of cell Nuclear Region Controls the Contains material Cytoplasm Contains Internal Organization of Eukaryotic Cells Each cell contains miniature organs called Each organelle performs for the cell 5

6 All of the area and the nucleus Cytoplasm Contains all of the within the cell. Ribosomes Make from (AA); Found or in cytosol. 6

7 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum(ER) Makes and them to other parts of the cells via (little packages). Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum proteins 7

8 Golgi Apparatus Found. Takes proteins from ER and to make them work; then sends them on their way ( of the cell). 8

9 of the cell. Takes in food and, which is broken down for energy Some cells have mitochondrion than others. Mitochondrion Cristae Folds in the inner of the mitochondria to increase the area 9

10 Nucleus Controls and coordinates cell activities. Contains DNA converted to and stored in. RNA sent out to cell as a. Nucleus Surrounded by. Nuclear pores allow nucleus. 10

11 Nucleus Image Source: Miss Reed s PowerPoint on Cells. Nuclear Membrane Surrounds material 11

12 Cytoskeleton Scaffolding that gives cell shape. Microfilaments -used for Microtubules -thicker, Cilia and Flagella Cilia Help some cells Flagellum Some found in the lining of tract. 12

13 Lysosomes Contain enzymes Breaks down Can cell. Centrioles Set of that move during mitosis 13

14 Plasma Membrane Selective and communication Plant Cell Organelles Cell Wall à and gives cell shape Vacuoles à, water; gives plant cells shape Chloroplasts à Found only in plant cells, Used to 14

15 Plant Cell Organelles Cell Transport 15

16 Structure of Plasma Membrane Selectively Permeable à allows some molecules ; keeps others Phospholipid Bilayerà heads on of cell; tails on inside of membrane Polar = Hydrophilic = Nonpolar = hydrophobic = water Why is there this arrangement of lipids? Cytoplasm and outside of cell is Molecules on the Plasma Membrane n Carbohydrates à Act as receptors; molecules attach to cell; tell it what to do n Cholesterol à Gives membrane shape; rigidity n Proteinsà Anchor cytoskeleton; channel nutrients and other substances into the cell Protein Receptors coming out of plasma membrane 16

17 Crossing the Plasma Membrane How do some substances pass through the membrane while others stay out? Materials moves across the membrane in two ways Passive Transport n n Diffusion à movement of molecules from to low concentration molecules, and water pass through the membrane by diffusion Equilibrium à Occurs when equal amounts of a substance are on either side of the cell 17

18 Osmosis Osmosis à diffusion of Isotonic Solution àcells are at ; of water Hypertonic solution à Cell is in a solution that has or other ions in it; water rushes out of the cell and the Hypotonic solution àcell is in a solution that has or other ions in it; water rushes into the cell and the Tonicity in Red Blood Cells 18

19 Active Transport Active Transport à to transport large molecules into the cell their concentration gradients 1. Cell Membrane Pumps à carrier proteins pump ions 2. Endocytosis à of particles or liquids by plasma membrane Cells take in by endocytosis from blood Pinocytosis à Endocytosis of 3. Exocytosis à vesicle contents by cell are transported by exocytosis Exocytosis Animation 19

20 Endocytosis Animation From Cell to Organism Tissueà Groups of performing the same task Exp. Nerve Tissue à transmits Epithelial Tissue à outer layer Organ à Groups of performing the same task Exp. Heart à Circulate through body System à Group of working together Exp. System system Organism à Groups of working together 20

21 n Compound Light Microscope Parts to Know A. Base B. Pillar C. Arm D. Stage E. Slide F. Coverslip G. Stage clips H. Light source/ Mirror I. Low power objective J. High power objective K. Body Tube L. Ocular/Eyepiece M. Coarse adjustment knob N. Fine adjustment knob O. Nosepiece P. Diaphragm 21

22 Cell Organelles Chromebook Assignment Name Directions: 1. Go to YouTube 2. Type in A Tour of the Cell. Look for the video posted that is 14:17 minutes long 3. Follow along the video and answer the following questions Questions Along the Way 1. Why are cells so small? 2. Cells were invisible until the invention of the? 3. What is the difference between a transmission electron microscope and a scanning electron microscope? 4. Which types of organisms are prokaryotic? 5. The nucleolus makes. 6. What material is found inside the nucleus? 7. What 2 types of RNA are found on ribosomes?

23 8. The container of the cell is the? 9. The rough ER is attached to the 10. This part of the cell ships and packages proteins. 11. The thick filaments in the cytoskeleton are called. The thin filaments of the cytoskeleton are called 12. The smooth ER produces and helps detoxify cells. 13. Which organelle generates ATP? 14. This organelle could kill the cell: 15. These types of cells don t have centrioles:

24 Name Class Date Skills Worksheet Directed Reading Section: Introduction to Cells Read each question, and write your answer in the space provided. 1. How and when did scientists discover cells? 2. What is the cell theory? Who formulated it and when? 3. How do cells vary in shape? 4. Why is it an advantage for cells to be small? In the space provided, write the letter of the description that best matches each term. 5. cell membrane 6. cytoplasm 7. DNA 8. ribosome 9. organelles 10. nucleus a. cell fluid and structures b. cell structure where proteins are made c. cell structures that carry out specific functions d. genetic information e. membrane-bound structure that houses a cell s DNA f. the outer boundary of a cell Original content Copyright by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Holt Biology 1 Cell Structure

25 Name Class Date Directed Reading continued Read each question, and write your answer in the space provided. 11. What are prokaryotes, what are they like, and when did they arise? 12. How do eukaryotes differ from prokaryotes? When did eukaryotes arise? Write p if the cell feature is found in prokaryotes. Write e if the cell feature is found in eukaryotes. Write b if the cell feature is found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. 13. cell membrane 14. cytoplasm 15. capsule 16. DNA 17. ribosomes 18. organelles 19. nucleus Original content Copyright by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Holt Biology 2 Cell Structure

26 Name Class Date Skills Worksheet Active Reading Section: Introduction to Cells Read the passage below. Then answer the questions that follow. The first cells to appear on Earth were prokaryotic cells. A prokaryote is an organism made of a single prokaryotic cell. The earliest prokaryotes may have arisen more than 2.5 billion years ago. Bacteria are prokaryotes. They are very small cells with a simple structure. Prokaryotes do not have a nucleus. This means that their DNA is not enclosed in a membrane inside the cell. Instead, prokaryotes have a single loop of DNA that floats in the cell s cytoplasm. Protein-making bodies called ribosomes also form part of the cytoplasm. Like all cells, prokaryotes have a cell membrane. All prokaryotes also have a cell wall surrounding the cell membrane. The cell wall helps provide support and protection for the cell. Some prokaryotes are enclosed by an additional layer. This layer is called the capsule. The capsule has a sticky surface area, so it allows prokaryotes to cling to surfaces, such as your skin and your teeth. Eukaryotic cells are more complex than prokaryotic cells. They all have a cell membrane, ribosomes, and DNA as prokaryotic cells do. However, the DNA of eukaryotic cells does not float freely in the cytoplasm. Instead, it is found in the nucleus, an internal compartment bound by a cell membrane. The nucleus is one kind of organelle found in eukaryotic cells. Organelles are structures that perform specific functions. Most organelles are surrounded by a membrane. Some organelles have membranes that form channels which help transport substances from one part of the cell to another part of the cell. Eukaryotes are organisms made of one or more eukaryotic cells. The earliest eukaryotes, like the first prokaryotes, were single-celled organisms. They arose about 1 billion years later than the earliest prokaryotes. Later, multicellular eukaryotes arose. Every type of multicellular organism that exists is made up of eukaryotic cells. SKILL: READING EFFECTIVELY Read each question, and write your answer in the space provided. 1. What is a prokaryote, and when did prokaryotes arise? Original content Copyright by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Holt Biology 7 Cell Structure

27 Name Class Date Active Reading continued 2. Describe three main features inside a prokaryotic cell. 3. Describe the structures that form the outside of a prokaryotic cell. Tell whether each structure is common to all prokaryotes. 4. What is a eukaryote, and when did eukaryotes first arise? SKILL: ORGANIZING INFORMATION Fill in the Venn diagram to compare and contrast the structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. In the space provided, write the letter of the phrase that best answers the question. 8. From which type of cells did multicellular organisms arise? a. prokaryotic cells b. prokaryotic cells with a capsule c. eukaryotic cells d. both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells Original content Copyright by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Holt Biology 9 Cell Structure

28 Youtube Cell Organelles Name The following iactivity compares and contrasts some of the major organelles found in eukaryotic cells Directions: 1. Using your Chromebook, go to Google 2. Click on Video 3. In the search bar, type in Cellular organelles 4. The first video shown should be from Bozeman Science. Click on that link and answer the following questions: Questions along the way: 1. What is the control center of the cell? 2. What organelles make the rough ER rough? 3. Plant cells store water in 4. Organelles are found in cells 5. How many subunits are in a ribosome? 6. Who discovered the Golgi Apparatus? 7. This organelle can actually kill the cell: 8. Why is folding important in Biology? 9. The thylakoid is part of what organelle? 10. What is the stroma?

29 Hudson Alpha Cell Name Overview: This exercise is designed to provide students a visual context for the different organelles that can be found in plant, animal, and bacterial cells. Procedure: You must first download Hudson Alpha Cell from itunes. It s free. Just go to the app store on your Chromebook and search Hudson alpha cell. Once you find it you can open it up and begin! To answer each question you will likely have to click on the basic, intermediate, and advanced buttons for each organelle. Good luck! Bacteria Cell Nucleoid Region 1. The nucleoid region of the bacterial cell contains 2. The nucleoid region is not enclosed by a 3. What is the shape of the bacterial genome (DNA)? Cell Membrane & Cytoplasm 1. This is the function of the cell membrane: 2. This is the fluid that fills the bacterium 3. These protein molecules, found in the cytoplasm, carry out reactions for the bacterium 4. The cell membrane is made from these types of lipids

30 Flagella 1. What is the function of the bacterial flagella? 2. How fast can a flagellum move a bacterial cell? Plasmids 1. What are plasmids? 2. What are 2 possible functions of plasmids? 3. How are plasmids used in biotechnology? Plant Cell Cell Wall 1. What is a cell wall? 2. What is the cell wall made from? 3. Why are cell walls so strong? Endoplasmic Reticulum 1. What is the function of the endoplasmic reticulum?

31 2. What organelle is the ER connected to? 3. What other organelles are attached to the surface of the ER? 4. The Rough ER makes while the Smooth ER makes Nucleus 1. The nucleus holds for plant and animal cells 2. How many membranes surround the nucleus? 3. What organelle does the nucleolus synthesize (make) Vacuole 1. What is the function of a vacuole in a plant cell? 2. Under optimal conditions the vacuole stores what? Chloroplast 1. Chloroplasts convert energy from the into using a process called Animal Cell Golgi Body 1. The golgi body modifies and packages 2. The golgi body is a stack of 3. Molecules made by the ER arrive at the golgi body in a package called a

32 Mitochondrion 1. The mitochondria produces for the cell. 2. The mitochondria metabolizes (or breaks down) into 3. Unlike other organelles, the mitochondria has its own Nucleolus 1. The nucleolus contains a dense bundle of and. Cell Membrane 1. The cell membrane is made from and proteins. 2. What are the main components of a phospholipid? 2. List 4 functions of the cell membrane: Centrioles 1. Centrioles are only found in cells 2. They help 3. Centrioles help to form 4. Centrioles are made from

33 Name Class Date Skills Worksheet Directed Reading Section: Inside the Eukaryotic Cell Read each question, and write your answer in the space provided. 1. What is the cytoskeleton, and what is its function? 2. What are three types of cytoskeleton fibers, and what does each do? 3. What is the main function of the nucleus, and why is this essential for the health of the cell? 4. What is the nucleolus, where is it, and what is its function? 5. What are the two types of ribosomes, and what does each do? 6. Describe the endoplasmic reticulum, and tell what the two different kinds of endoplasmic reticulum do. Original content Copyright by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Holt Biology 3 Cell Structure

34 Name Class Date Directed Reading continued 7. How does the Golgi apparatus continue the function of the rough ER? 8. What are two functions of lysosomes? 9. What do contractile vacuoles in plants do? 10. What do contractile vacuoles in protists do? 11. What is ATP? 12. What are chloroplasts, how are they structured, and in what kinds of cells are they found? 13. What function do mitochondria perform? Why do some cells contain many mitochondria? Original content Copyright by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Holt Biology 4 Cell Structure

35 Animal Cell Structures & Organelles- Microviewer Lab Name Purpose: To observe cell structures not visible using light microscopes Materials: Microviewer; slides and booklet Procedure: Use the microviewer to observe the structures and organelles of the animal cell. Draw what you see, and label each structure or organelle. Refer to the reading that goes along with each slide to help in labeling your diagrams. Slide 1: This slide shows many cells from a human oil gland. Draw one cell, and label the cell membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm. Slide 2: Draw and label the endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, mitochondria, nucleus, and nucleolus. Slide 4: Draw and label the golgi apparatus (Golgi body) and vacuole. Slide 7: Draw and label the chromosomes

36 Analysis Questions. Refer to your notes on cell structures and the reading in the booklet to answer the following questions. 1. Notice the way the ER winds throughout the cell. How does this arrangement help the ER to perform its job of transporting proteins throughout the cell? 2. Cells that need a constant supply of energy have lots of mitochondria. Where in your body would one find cells with lots of mitochondria? 3. What important information is found on chromatin? 4. Once proteins are made in the ribosome, they must travel to what structure to be processed before leaving the cell? 5. If you were looking at a plant cell, how would you expect the vacuole to look in comparison to an animal cell? 6. Why would you expect your muscle cells to have lots of ribosomes? 7. What structure is controlling al of the activities within the cell? 8. What is the key structural difference between the rough ER and smooth ER? 9. Whenever materials need to enter or leave a cell, what structures must they pass through in an animal cell? Plant cell? 10. What structure would you expect to see attached to the vacuole, responsible for the digestion of glucose?

37 Name Class Date Skills Worksheet Active Reading Section: Inside the Eukaryotic Cell Read the passage below. Then answer the questions that follow. Vesicles that contain newly made proteins move from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), through the cytoplasm, to an organelle called the Golgi apparatus. The Golgi apparatus is a set of flattened, membrane-bound sacs that serves as the packaging and distribution center of the cell. Protein-containing vesicles from the ER enter one side of the Golgi apparatus. Enzymes inside the Golgi apparatus modify those proteins. The modified proteins are then enclosed in new vesicles that bud from the surface of the other side of the Golgi apparatus. Many of these vesicles move to the cell membrane and release their contents outside the cell. The ER and the Golgi apparatus work together in the production, packaging, and distribution of proteins. SKILL: READING EFFECTIVELY Read each question, and write your answer in the space provided. 1. Describe the path that vesicles containing newly made proteins take in the cell. 2. What is the Golgi apparatus? 3. How do proteins arrive at the Golgi apparatus, and what happens to them there? Original content Copyright by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Holt Biology 9 Cell Structure

38 Name Class Date Active Reading continued 4. What happens to many of the protein-containing vesicles when they are released from the Golgi apparatus? In the space provided, write the letter of the term or phrase that best answers each question. 5. Where do proteins that enter the Golgi apparatus come from? a. cell nucleus b. endoplasmic reticulum c. outside the cell d. digested materials inside the cell 6. What role do vesicles play in processing the proteins in the Golgi apparatus? a. They create the proteins. b. They modify the proteins. c. They store the proteins. d. They transport the proteins. Original content Copyright by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Holt Biology 10 Cell Structure

39 Cells Laboratory Purpose: To identify living cells in an aquatic environment To describe different types of eukaryotic cells To compare plant and animal cells Materials: microscope slide cover slip prepared slides elodea living protists Part I. Elodea Cells 1. Obtain a microscope and plug it in 2. Prepare a wet mount of an elodea leaf 3. On your data sheet, draw what you see. Label cell wall, membrane, and chloroplasts 4. Throw out the leaf, rinse and dry your cover slip and slide Part II. Prepared Cells 1. Obtain a microscope and plug it in 2. Obtain a prepared cell slide from the front desk. **Note that many of these are bacterial and fungal cells! 3. On your data sheet, draw what you see and identify the type of cell for your observation 4. Place prepared slide back on the front desk Part III. Living Cells 1. Obtain a microscope and plug it in 2. Prepare a wet mount using live water from the back lab table 3. On your data sheet, draw what you see. Try to find at least 3 living organisms! 4. Rinse and dry your cover slip and slide

40 Data Elodea Cells Draw what you observed under 40x and 100x. Label cell wall, membrane, and chloroplasts 40x 100x Prepared Cells Type of Cells Draw what you observed under 40x and 100x. 40x 100x Living Cells Draw 2 microscopic organisms that you observed under the microscope Organism #1 Organism #2

41 A Day In the Life of a Cell When looking at a day in the life of a cell, it s important to note that cells are very similar entire organisms. They need to take in energy, use it to make stuff (like proteins), and release waste that will not be used. So, let s take a look at what happens to the cells in your body after you eat food. As the food passes through your digestive system, it is broken down to a simple sugar, glucose. Glucose is then passed through the blood to the cells all over your body. Glucose first enters through the plasma membrane of the cell. In the cytoplasm, glucose is broken down (sometimes by lysosomes) to smaller molecules. These smaller molecules then enter the mitochondria where they are converted to ATP. ATP stands for Adenosine Triphosphate, but what you really need to know about ATP is that it is used as an energy source for the cell. When ATP is broken down, energy is released and used by the cell. What does the cell use energy for? Well, most importantly, the cell is all about making proteins, and energy is needed to make proteins. Remember that proteins are the substances that give cells (and organisms) their physical structure. Some important proteins are 1. Hemoglobin- blood protein that carries oxygen 2. Keratin- protein found in fingernails and hair 3. Collagen- protein that makes up connective tissue, muscles and bones How are these proteins made? Well, you might remember from earlier in the year that different proteins are made from DNA. DNA gets transcribed to mrna, which then leaves the nucleus through the nuclear pores. The mrna then travels to the ribosomes (found in the cytosol or on the Rough ER), where it is translated into proteins. These proteins, after they are made, must get modified so they can work. These proteins then travel (through the Rough ER or the Smooth ER) to the Golgi Apparatus. The Golgi Apparatus adds chemicals so that the proteins can work. The proteins are then shipped within the cell, or out of the cell, by travelling through the Rough ER or Smooth ER. The protein then leaves the cell and becomes part of your body.

42 Osmosis Tutorial Name Directions: Go to youtube and search for osmosis. The 3 rd or 4 th video down is a detailed explanation of Osmosis from the Khan Academy. Play the video, with audio, and answer the following questions 1. The solution there is more of is called the 2. The solution there is less of is called the 3. What is diffusion? 4. What is the chemical definition of concentration? 5. Which way do sugar particles move in the two containers? Right to left or left to right? 6. In the two connected containers, which had a higher concentration of solute? Right or Left? 7. Solutions with high concentrations are called solutions 8. Solutions with low concentrations are called solutions 9. What is a semi-permeable membrane? 10. Can sugar pass through the semi-permeable membrane? Why or why not? 11. Water tends to move from concentration to concentration. 12. The diffusion of water is called 13. Is water usually the solute or the solvent in a solution? Why

43 Osmosis Through Living Cells Name Materials Microscope Microscope Slides Salt Water Distilled Water Elodea Cover slips Pipette Cells in Equilibrium 1. Make a wet mount of an elodea leaf using water from the tank that the leaves are in 2. Observe the Cells at 40X and 100X 3. Draw what you see below Cells in Salt Water 1. Make a wet mount of an elodea leaf using salt water 2. Observe the Cells at 40X and 100X 3. Draw what you see below Cells in Distilled Water 1. Make a wet mount of an elodea leaf using salt water 2. Observe the Cells at 40X and 100X 3. Draw what you see below

44 Analysis Questions 1. The cells in the tank water are in equilibrium. What does that mean? 2. When cells are at equilibrium, is there any net movement of water into or out of the cells? 3. When elodea cells were placed in salt water, did water enter or leave the cell? What type of solution were these cells placed in? 4. When elodea cells were placed in distilled water, did water enter or leave the cell? What type of solution were these cells placed in? 5. What happens to the osmotic pressure of a cell when in is placed in salt water? 6. What happens to the osmotic pressure of a cell when in is placed in distilled water?

45 Cell Equilibrium Visual Concepts Name Directions: Go to the following web page from this textbook: username: allb7 password:lions 1. Log on to the Holt McDougal Website 2. Proceed to the Interactive Online Edition of your Biology textbook 3. Select Chapter 8: Cells and Their Environment from the chapter box on the top left of your screen. 4. Click on the eactivities tab 5. Proceed to the left side of the page and find Visual Concepts. Look down until you find Cell Membrane 6. Proceed at your own pace through the Visual Concepts. Answer the questions as you move through the activity. Make sure you have the volume turned up so that you can hear the narration! Phospholipid 1. This structure is the central component of the cell membrane 2. What is the polar head of a cell membrane made from? 3. How many nonpolar tails are there in a phospholipid? Lipid Bilayer 4. A cell membrane is made from layers of phospholipids. 5. Are the lipid tails facing inward or outward in the lipid bilayer? 6. Phospholipid tails repel Parts of the Cell Membrane 7. Compare the location of steroids and carbohydrates on the cell membrane? 8. What is the structural difference between a transport and peripheral protein?

46 Cell Equilibrium Visual Concepts Name Directions: Go to the following web page from this textbook: username: allb7 password:lions 1. Log on to the Holt McDougal Website 2. Proceed to the Interactive Online Edition of your Biology textbook 3. Select Chapter 8: Cells and Their Environment from the chapter box on the top left of your screen. 4. Click on the eactivities tab 5. Proceed to the left side of the page and find Visual Concepts. Look down until you find Cell Transport 6. Proceed at your own pace through the Visual Concepts. Answer the questions as you move through the activity. Make sure you have the volume turned up so that you can hear the narration! Comparing Hypertonic, Isotonic, and Hypotonic Solutions 1. The movement of water across a cell membrane is called 2. The net direction of osmosis is dependent on 3. What are solutes? 4. What is the difference between an organic and inorganic compound? It is NOT found in this activity. Look it up and answer in your own words! 5. Which way does water move in a hypertonic solution? 7. Is there more solute inside or outside of the cell in a hypertonic solution? 8. Which way does water move in an isotonic solution? 9. Is there a net movement of water in an isotonic solution? 10. What may be the harmful results of a cell in a hypotonic solution?

47 What is Active Transport? Active transport involves the use of proteins that don't just passively diffuse across the cell membrane, but require the use of cellular energy (usually ATP) to actively pump substances into or out of the cell. An example of this type of cellular process is the action of a sodium-potassium pump found in the cell membrane of neurons (nerve cells). This protein pumps sodium ions from the inside to the outside of the neuron, and pumps potassium ions in the opposite direction. This is an interesting task for the cell because our cells already have a high concentration of sodium outside of them. Additionally, our cells have a high concentration of potassium inside the cell membrane. How does the cell get sodium into it when it already has a concentration of it outside? How does it get potassium into the cell when the interior is already high in potassium? Diffusion won t work. The cell must use ATP for this process. As the sodium fits onto a site on the protein, a phosphate is transferred to the protein providing energy to kick the sodium ion to the outside and the potassium ion to the inside. This process sets up a high concentration of sodium ions outside the cell and a high concentration of potassium ions inside the cell. This concentration difference across the membrane is important for the generation of the nerve impulses by which neurons transmit information from on end of the neuron to the other. Active transport is also used to: 1. Generate charge gradients. For example in the mitochondrion, hydrogen ion pumps pump hydrogen ions into the inter-membrane space of the organelle as part of making ATP. 2. Concentrate ions, minerals and nutrients inside the cell that are in low concentration outside. 3. Keep unwanted ions or other molecules out of the cell that are able to diffuse through the cell membrane. In all these cases the key is that active transport uses energy to send substances against the direction they would travel by simple diffusion: that is from a region of low concentration to a region of high concentration.

48 Name Class Date Skills Worksheet Directed Reading Section: From Cell to Organism Read each question, and write your answer in the space provided. 1. What are four ways that prokaryotes differ from eukaryotes? 2. What are some ways that prokaryotes can vary? 3. What are two different structures some prokaryotes have? Describe each, and tell its function. 4. How do plant cells differ from animal cells? 5. Define tissue, and give an example of a plant tissue and an animal tissue. Original content Copyright by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Holt Biology 5 Cell Structure

49 Name Class Date Directed Reading continued 6. Define organ, and give an example of an organ in plants and an organ in animals. 7. Distinguish between organs and organ systems. Give an example of an organ system in plants and an organ system in animals. 8. Define multicellular organism. 9. What is a colonial organism? Give an example. 10. What makes multicellular organisms very different from colonial organisms? Original content Copyright by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Holt Biology 6 Cell Structure

50 Students should be able to: Guidelines for Cells Test Identify cellular structures and their function, including ribosomes, rough ER, smooth ER, golgi apparatus, mitochondrion, cristae, nucleus, nuclear membrane, and nuclear pores, plasma membrane, cell wall, chloroplasts, vesicles, centrioles, vacuoles, lysosomes, cytoskeleton Be able to locate the above organelles in a plant and animal cell Differentiate between plant and animal cell organelles Describe the early microscopists and their contribution toward cell study Identify the 3 major regions of the cell Describe the size of cells and the reason for their size Locate and define the different parts of the microscope Describe the differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes Anything from the microscope labs, and Cells Ipad assignments are fair game! Differentiate between polar and nonpolar molecules Describe the plasma membrane, its structure, and be able to explain how its structure affects its function Describe the roles of carbohydrates, cholesterol, and proteins on the plasma membrane Describe how small molecules and large molecules are transported through the plasma membrane Define hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions. Be able to describe how these solutions affect cell size and possible roles of these solutions in the body Describe how large molecules are taken into the cell. Be able to describe the process of endocytosis, exocytosis, pinocytosis, and active transport. Know which molecules are transported in the body using these processes

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