2016 ICCB and CAIT i-pathways.org 1 The GED Mark is a registered trademark of the American Council on Education. Unit 2: Life Science

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1 Skills fr the GED Test Bdy systems Hmestasis Surces f nutrients Disease and pathgens Energy fr life functins Flw f energy in ecsystems Carrying capacity Symbisis and changes in ne ppulatin affecting anther ppulatin Disruptin f ecsystems and extinctin Cellular cmpnents that assist the functins f life Cell thery and cellular levels f rganizatin Mitsis, meisis Inheritance and chrmsmes Gentypes, phentypes and the prbability f traits in clse relatives Envirnmental altering f traits, and expressin f traits Cmmn ancestry Selectin Scientific mdels, theries and prcesses Evaluate whether a cnclusin r thery is supprted r challenged by particular data r evidence Make a predictin based upn data r evidence Reasn frm data r evidence Cite specific textual evidence t supprt a finding r cnclusin Identify and interpret independent and dependent variables Understand and explain textual scientific presentatin Tips All f science is based n the scientific thinking cvered in Unit 1. It s imprtant t remember thse cncepts, learn infrmatin and vcabulary in the life science dmain t be successful. Skills fr the HiSET TM Test Cite specific textual evidence t supprt analysis f science and technical texts, attending t the precise details f explanatins r descriptins. Fllw precisely a cmplex multistep prcedure when carrying ut experiments, taking measurements r perfrming technical tasks, attending t special cases r exceptins defined in the text. Cmpare and cntrast findings presented in a text t thse frm ther surces (including their wn experiments), nting when the findings supprt r cntradict previus explanatins r accunts. Tips All f science is based n the scientific thinking cvered in Unit 1. It s imprtant t remember thse cncepts, learn infrmatin and vcabulary in the life science dmain t be successful ICCB and CAIT i-pathways.rg 1

2 Lessn 1: The Human Bdy This lessn cvers the fllwing infrmatin: Health and wellness Varius systems in the bdy Diseases that impact the human bdy Highlights include the fllwing: Our bdies are made up f systems that interact, allwing us t experience the wrld. There are multiple systems that wrk tgether t supprt the bdy s functins. Each system has its wn functin. Circulatry System is made up f rgans that transprt xygenated and de-xygenated bld thrughut the bdy. This system is made up f the heart, bld vessels, and bld. It supplies the entire bdy with bld that carries nutrients and fluids t wrking rgans and muscles. The immune system refers t the antibdies and lymphcytes that attack invading viruses and bacteria. The lymphatic system filters ut dangerus rganisms that may cause disease. Lymph rgans are the spleen, thymus gland lymph ndes, and lymph vessels. The urinary system is made up f the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The brain, spinal crd, and nerves make up the nervus system that is the cntrl and cmmunicatin center f the bdy because it sends, receives, and prcesses impulses made by the bdy. The digestive system is made up f rgans in the bdy that break dwn fd int prteins, carbhydrates, fats, vitamins, and minerals which the bdy uses t repair, grw, and make energy. The endcrine system is made up f rgans called glands. These glands prduce hrmnes that regulate grwth, sexual develpment, and metablism. The integumentary system is made up f skin, hair, and nails. Bnes, tendns, and ligaments make up the skeletal system. The muscular system is made up f tissues that wrk with the skeletal system t cntrl mvement. The reprductive system allws us the ability t have children. The respiratry system allws ur bdy t breathe and supply ur bdy with xygen. It includes the nse, thrat, muth, trachea, and lungs. The excretry system remves pathgens and unnecessary debris t prevent infectin in the bdy. Hmestasis is the term used t label the bdy s ability t maintain stability and regulate its internal envirnment. Nutrients are a chemical a living thing needs t grw, repair, regulate metablism, and make energy. They include carbhydrates, prteins, fats, dietary minerals, vitamins, water, and xygen. An rganism is an individual frm f life that wrks interdependently with many things inside and utside the bdy t carry ut varius prcess f life ICCB and CAIT i-pathways.rg 2

3 Once a disease-causing rganism called a pathgen infects the bdy, the immune system will begin defending the bdy against the illness. Diseases can be transmitted frm a persn, animals/insects, fd, and water. A vaccine is a substance used t stimulate the antibdies t fight and prvide immunity against ne r many diseases. Reflectin: There are many systems in the human bdy that wrk tgether t ensure health and wellness. It s imprtant t understand hw nutrients fuel the bdy and help keep all the systems wrking crrectly. Organisms wrk tgether t carry ut varius prcess f life. Pathgens infect the bdy and the immune system defends against the illness. Vaccines are used t stimulate the antibdies that fight against the pathgens. Ntes: 2016 ICCB and CAIT i-pathways.rg 3

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5 Lessn 2: The Cell This lessn cvers the fllwing infrmatin: Cell structures and functins Difference between plant and animal cells Divisin f cells Hw cells use energy Hw cells differentiate themselves Highlights include the fllwing: All living things respnd t stimuli. require energy. reprduce. are made f cells. A cell is the smallest unit in a living rganism that is capable f carrying ut all the activities f life. The Cell Thery says A cell is the basic unit f life. All rganisms are made f ne r mre cells. All cells cme frm existing cells. All cells are classified as either plant r animal cells. All plant and animal cells have the fllwing: A cell membrane A nucleus Cytplasm Organelles Plant cells have the fllwing: A cell wall. Chlrplasts. A cells live cycle is brken dwn int Interphase and M phase (Mitsis) Mitsis has fur phases: Prphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telphase. Plants can make their wn fd thugh phtsynthesis, a prcess that allws plants t build mlecules f fd by trapping the energy in sunlight. Cells are either breaking dwn mlecules r building them. Catablic reactins release energy and anablic reactins use energy. All multi-cellular rganisms begin life as ne cell. They end up as a cmplex rganism thrugh a prcess called differentiatin r specializatin. Reflectin: There are imprtant structures within a cell. There are differences between animal and plant cells All cells g thrugh a prcess f cell divisin. Phtsynthesis is imprtant t all living things. Cells rganize themselves int cmplex, multi-cellular rganisms thrugh differentiatin ICCB and CAIT i-pathways.rg 5

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7 Crsswrd Puzzle: Acrss 4. Destructive metablism invlving the release f energy and resulting in the breakdwn f cmplex materials within the rganism. 5. A specialized cellular part. 6. The rganized cmplex f inrganic and rganic substances external t the nuclear membrane f a cell. 7. A prcess that takes place in the nucleus f a dividing cell, resulting in the frmatin f tw new nuclei each having the same number f chrmsmes as the parent nucleus. 8. The cnstructive part f metablism cncerned especially with macrmlecular synthesis. Dwn 1. Frmatin f carbhydrates frm carbn dixide and a surce f hydrgen (e.g., water) in the chlrphyllcntaining tissues f plants expsed t light. 2. An agent that directly influences the activity f a living rganism r ne f its parts ICCB and CAIT i-pathways.rg 7

8 3. A cellular rganelle that is essential t cell functins. 5. A cmplex structure f interdependent and subrdinate elements whse relatins and prperties are largely determined by their functin in the whle ICCB and CAIT i-pathways.rg 8

9 Lessn 3: Mlecular Basis f Heredity This lessn cvers the fllwing infrmatin: Predicting utcmes f genetic crsses Differentiate patterns f inheritance Identifying the structure f DNA mlecules Hw DNA replicates itself Hw genes express themselves Highlights include the fllwing: Every living thing inherits a set f characteristics frm its parents. In genetics, a diagram f the Punnett Square shws the prbability f each pssible utcme f a crss between tw individuals. Inheritance is determined by factrs, called genes, which pass frm generatin t generatins. Different frms f a gene are called alleles. Sme alleles are dminant (prevailing), and thers are recessive (withdrawn). Genes are segregated frm each ther when gametes are frmed. Alleles fr different genes usually segregate independently frm each ther. Incmplete dminance One allele is nt cmpletely dminant ver the ther. Cdminance Bth alleles cntribute t the phentype f the rganism. Multiple Alleles A trait is cntrlled by mre than tw alleles. Plygenic Traits Tw r mre genes cntrl a trait. Genes are lcated n chrmsmes in the cell nucleus. Cells that cntain bth sets f hmlgus chrmsmes are referred t as diplid cells. Cells that cntain ne set f hmlgus chrmsmes are called haplid cells. Only gametes are haplid. The prcess that prduces gametes with ne half the number f chrmsmes is called meisis. Meisis ccurs nly in gamete-prducing cells. Male gametes are called sperm. Female gametes are called eggs. Bth sperm and eggs nly have half the number f chrmsmes necessary t create anther individual. When a sperm fertilizes an egg, the tw haplid cells cmbine their chrmsmes in rder t prduce a cell with a full set f chrmsmes. The resulting diplid cell is called a zygte. The zygte then can develp by mitsis int a multi-celled rganism (animal r human being). Genes are made up f DNA shaped like a duble helix, which allws fr DNA t cpy itself in a prcess called replicatin. A mutatin is any change in a DNA sequence that impacts genetic infrmatin. Reflectin: Genetic utcmes can be predicted using Punnett Squares. Genes are made up f DNA mlecules that replicate ICCB and CAIT i-pathways.rg 9

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11 Crsswrd Puzzle: Acrss 4. Cmplex prteins prduced by living cells that serve as a catalyst fr certain bichemical reactins at bdy temperatures. 5. Having tw identical alleles fr a certain trait 9. Carriers f the genetic material that is cpied and passes frm generatin t generatin f cells. 10. A physical characteristic; the way smething lks 12. The cellular prcess that results in the number f chrmsmes in gamete-prducing cells being reduced t ne half Dwn 1. Sex cells 2. Having tw different alleles fr the same trait 3. A describable feature, such as eye clr 6. Different frms f genes 7. Duplicatin f a cell and all f its parts 8. A specific attribute, such as brwn eyes. 11. Genetic makeup 2016 ICCB and CAIT i-pathways.rg 11

12 Lessn 4: Understanding Evlutin This lessn cvers the fllwing infrmatin: Key pints f Darwin s thery f evlutin Natural selectin Punctuated equilibrium Evidence fr evlutin Classificatin f rganisms Highlights include the fllwing: There are scientific examples f evlutin and natural selectin in the wrld. Mst scientists accept the thery f evlutin as the explanatin fr the great diversity f life that we see n Earth tday and as an explanatin fr sme interesting scientific findings. D nt cnfuse the thery f evlutin with a thery fr the rigin f life. They are different. Evlutin refers t the gradual changes that take place in rganisms ver a lng perid f time. A prcess called natural selectin drives evlutin. Variatin naturally exists within the genes f every species. A particular envirnment can nly supprt a certain number f a species, s members f a species will be in cmpetitin with each ther fr water and fd. As time prgresses, members f the species with favrable traits will utlive thse with unfavrable traits simply because they have better dds f survival. A fssil is frmed nly under special cnditins and fssil recrds shw a prgressin frm the earliest types f ne-celled life t the cmplex rganisms living tday. Punctuated equilibrium helps t explain the sudden disappearance r appearance f a species. The disappearance f the dinsaur frm the earth (extinctin) is ne f the mst discussed sudden disappearances f a species. Anther line f evidence f the appearance f a new species (evlutin) cmes frm the study f anatmy, the way in which rganisms are put tgether. Scientists have develped a system f classifying rganisms that reflects their evlutinary relatinships. Organisms with similar characteristics are gruped tgether. Reflectin: The thery f evlutin is cntrversial between evlutinists and creatinists. Natural selectin refers t the evlutinary idea f "survival f the fittest." Punctuated equilibrium is als an evlutinary thery that puts frth the idea f rapid as ppsed t gradual change in a species. Natural selectin and punctuated equilibrium help scientists explain the fssil recrd. Scientists explain evlutinary relatinships f rganisms by using a classificatin system fr rganisms ICCB and CAIT i-pathways.rg 12

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15 Lessn 5: Frm and Functin This lessn cvers the fllwing infrmatin: Key relatinships between frm and functin Hw frm and functin influence the wrld arund yu Hw the elements f evlutin effect frm and functin Highlights include the fllwing: The relatinship between frm and functin prbably can be tracked t the beginning f mankind's quest t survive and be a mre efficient wrker. The frm and functin f living things can be mdified thrugh the prcess f evlutin. The degree t which bilgical frm and functin can be mdified has strict limits. Organisms can evlve and change accrding t their envirnment, but they dn't have unlimited ability t change. Many f tday's animals represent a cmprmise between inherited ptential and envirnmental pprtunity. Animals we see tday are a mix between their genes (inherited ptential) and their surrundings (envirnment). Reflectin: There is a relatinship between frm and functin. Frm and functin influence the wrld arund yu. Ntes: 2016 ICCB and CAIT i-pathways.rg 15

16 Wrd Search: CHANGES COMPROMISE FORM MODIFIED STRUCTURE RELATIONSHIP DARWIN FUNCTION ORGANISM SHAPE EVOLUTION LIMITS RELATED 2016 ICCB and CAIT i-pathways.rg 16

17 Lessn 6: Independence f Organisms This lessn cvers the fllwing infrmatin: Ecsystems The flw f energy frm ne rganism t anther Hw energy flw impacts a fd web The relatinship between rganisms within an ecsystem Highlights include the fllwing: Scientists wh study eclgy lk at hw rganisms interact with each ther and their envirnment. An ecsystem is made up f Individuals members f a particular species. Ppulatin grups f individuals that belng t the same species and live in the same area. Cmmunity assembly f different ppulatins that live tgether in a defined area. Ecsystem All the living things in an area cmbined with their physical envirnment. Everything an rganism des requires energy. The flw f energy thrugh an ecsystem is ne f the mst imprtant factrs that determine the system s capacity r ability t sustain life. Prduces are rganisms that capture energy frm the sun and prduce fd thrugh a prcess called phtsynthesis. Cnsumers are rganism that cannt capture energy directly frm the sun r chemicals in rder t make their fd. They must get (cnsume) it frm ther rganism. In ecsystems, rganisms interact with each ther. As a result, matter and energy flw in ne directin frm ne rganism t anther. Energy flws frm the sun r chemicals t prducers and then t cnsumers. The path the energy makes as it transfers frm prducers t cnsumers is called a fd chain. A fd web links all the fd chains in an ecsystem tgether. Within an ecsystem, each rganism has its wn habitat, r a place where the rganism lives ut its life. A habitat can change as a result f nature r man. Every rganism has a rle t play. A niche includes the rle an rganism has in its envirnment. Many rganisms can ccupy the same habitat but have a different niche. Organisms that live tgether in an ecsystem interact cnstantly. These interactins, such as cmpetitin, predatin, and symbisis can have a great effect n the ecsystem. Cmpetitin Organisms cmpete fr fd, water, and space t live. Predatin One rganism (the predatr) kills and eats anther rganism (the prey). Symbisis Tw species living tgether Reflectin: Grupings within an ecsystem are species, ppulatins, cmmunities, and ecsystem. Sme rganisms are prducers (make their wn fd) and sme are cnsumers (rely n ther rganisms fr their fd). Cnsumers can be herbivres, carnivres, mnivres, r decmpsers. The sun is the ultimate surce f energy n earth ICCB and CAIT i-pathways.rg 17

18 Energy flws frm the sun t plants (prducers) and frm the plants t different cnsumers. Tw species can ccupy the same niche (rle) in an ecsystem. Organisms interact in relatinships that are called cmpetitin, predatin, r symbisis. Man r events in nature can upset the natural flw f energy in an ecsystem. Ntes: 2016 ICCB and CAIT i-pathways.rg 18

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20 Lessn 7: Behavir f Organisms This lessn cvers the fllwing infrmatin: Difference between as stimulus and respnse Difference between learned and innate behavirs Hw rganisms use learned and innate behavir Highlights include the fllwing: Studying the behavir f animals can teach scientists a great deal nt nly abut the animals themselves but als abut the evlutinary histry f the animals. Behavir is anything an animal des in respnse t a stimulus in its envirnment. Stimulus examples include the fllwing: Natural selectin is part f Darwin's thery f evlutin. It is the idea that thse members f a species with the mst favrable traits will survive. Certain behavirs als give an individual a better chance f survival. Since certain behavirs can be inherited, that individual's ffspring will als have the behavir. Mst scientists nw believe that bth heredity and learning play rles in shaping behavir. Behavirs can be classified as ne f tw kinds: innate r learned. An innate behavir is ne that is nt learned. It just cmes naturally. When smething is autmatic, it "takes ver" withut a persn having t d anything t bring it abut. In a learned behavir, an animal alters its behavir as a result f experience. Habituatin is the simplest type f learned behavir. Classical Cnditining An animal makes a cnnectin between a stimulus and a reward r punishment. Trial and Errr Animal learns t behave in a certain way thrugh repeated practice. Examples f Insight, r high-level learning. Animals use previus experience t respnd t a new situatin. Any time animals interact with members f their wn species, they are exhibiting scial behavir. The type f cmmunicatin they use depends n the types f stimuli their senses can detect. They use visual, sund, tuch, and chemical signals t cmmunicate. Reflectin: There is a difference between a stimulus and a respnse. Natural selectin can wrk with behavir as well as traits. Natural selectin favrs the individual rather than the species. Innate behavir is like inherited behavir (autmatic respnse and instinct). There are fur kinds f learned behavir: habituatin, classical cnditining, trial and errr, and insight learning. Natural cycles are daily (circadian rhythms) and seasnal (drmancy, migratin). Animals participate in fur types f scial behavir: curtship, defense, cmpetitin, and aggressin. Animals cmmunicate with sund, visual, chemical, tuch, and language signals. Only humans use language ICCB and CAIT i-pathways.rg 20

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22 Wrd Search AUTOMATIC INSIGHT LEARNING CONDITIONING MIGRATION RESPONSE CLASSICAL SPECIES INHERITED STIMULUS CIRCADIAN LEARNED TRAITS HABITUATION BEHAVIOR INNATE INSTINCT DORMANCY 2016 ICCB and CAIT i-pathways.rg 22