Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction. Chapter 9

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1 Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction Chapter 9

2 9.1 Genes and Alleles Genes Sequences of DNA that encode heritable traits Alleles Slightly different forms of the same gene Each specifies a different version of gene product

3 Sexual and Asexual Reproduction Asexual reproduction (1 parent) Offspring inherit parent s genes Clones (identical copies of parent) Sexual reproduction (2 parents) Offspring differ from parents and each another Different combinations of alleles Different details of shared traits

4 Sexual Reproduction Meiosis, gamete formation, and fertilization occur in sexual reproduction Meiosis and fertilization shuffle parental alleles Offspring inherit new combinations of alleles

5 Key Concepts: SEXUAL VS. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION By asexual reproduction, one parent alone transmits its genetic information to offspring By sexual reproduction, offspring typically inherit information from two parents that differ in their alleles Alleles are different forms of the same gene; they specify different versions of a trait

6 9.2 What Meiosis Does Meiosis Nuclear division mechanism that precedes gamete formation in eukaryotic cells Halves parental chromosome number Fertilization Fusion of two gamete nuclei Restores parental chromosome number Forms zygote (first cell of new individual)

7 2n germ cell germ cell each chromosome duplicated during interphase n MEIOSIS I separation of homologues MEIOSIS II separation of sister chromatids gametes gametes 2n zygote diploid number restored at fertilization Fig. 9.12, p.150

8 Homologues Sexual reproducers inherit pairs of chromosomes 1 from maternal parent, 1 from paternal parent The pairs are homologous ( the same ) Except nonidentical sex chromosomes (X and Y) Same length, shape, genes All pairs interact at meiosis One chromosome of each type sorts into gametes

9 9.3 Tour of Meiosis All chromosomes are duplicated during interphase, before meiosis Two divisions, meiosis I and II, divide the parental chromosome number by two Each forthcoming gamete is haploid (n)

10 Meiosis I The first nuclear division Each duplicated chromosome lines up with its homologous partner The two homologous chromosomes move apart, toward opposite spindle poles

11 Prophase I Chromosomes condense and align tightly with their homologues Each homologous pair undergoes crossing over Microtubules form the bipolar spindle One pair of centrioles moves to the other side of the nucleus

12 Prophase I (cont.) Nuclear envelope breaks up Microtubules growing from each spindle pole penetrate the nuclear region Microtubules tether one or the other chromosome of each homologous pair

13 Metaphase I Microtubules from both poles position all pairs of homologous chromosomes at the spindle equator

14 Anaphase I Microtubules separate each chromosome from its homologue, moving to opposite spindle poles Other microtubules overlap midway between spindle poles, slide past each other to push poles farther apart As anaphase I ends, one set of duplicated chromosomes nears each spindle pole

15 Telophase I Two nuclei form Typically, the cytoplasm divides All chromosomes are still duplicated Each still consists of two sister chromatids

16 Meiosis II The second nuclear division Sister chromatids of each chromosome are pulled away from each other Each is now an individual chromosome Prophase II Metaphase II

17 Anaphase II and Telophase II In anaphase II, one chromosome of each type is moved toward opposite spindle poles Occurs in both nuclei formed in meiosis I By the end of telophase II, there are four haploid nuclei, each with unduplicated chromosomes Anaphase II Telophase II

18 Meiosis I plasma membrane newly forming microtubules of the spindle one pair of homologous chromosomes spindle equator (midway between the two poles) breakup of nuclear envelope centrosome with a pair of centrioles, moving to opposite sides of nucleus Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I Chromosomes Prior to metaphase I, one One of each duplicated One of each type were duplicated set of microtubules had chromosome, maternal of chromosome has earlier, in tethered one chromosome or paternal, moves to a arrived at a spindle interphase. of each type to one spindle spindle pole; its homologue pole. In most species, pole and another set tethered moves to the opposite pole. the cytoplasm divides its homologue to the other at this time. spindle pole. Fig. 9.5a, p.142

19 Fig. 9.5b, p.142

20 Meiosis II there is no DNA replication between the two divisions Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II In each cell, one of two centrioles moves to the opposite side of the cell, and a new bipolar spindle forms. By now, microtubules from both spindle poles have finished a tugof-war. The sister chromatids of each chromosome move apart and are now individual, unduplicated A new nuclear envelope encloses each parcel of chromosomes, so there are now four nuclei. Fig. 9.5b, p.142

21 Haploid Daughter Cells When cytoplasm divides, four haploid cells result One or all may serve as gametes or, in plants, as spores that lead to gamete-producing bodies

22 Key Concepts: STAGES OF MEIOSIS Diploid cells have a pair of each type of chromosome, one maternal and one paternal Meiosis, a nuclear division mechanism, reduces the chromosome number Meiosis occurs only in cells set aside for sexual reproduction

23 Key Concepts: STAGES OF MEIOSIS (cont.) Meiosis sorts out a reproductive cell s chromosomes into four haploid nuclei Haploid nuclei are distributed to daughter cells by way of cytoplasmic division

24 9.4 Meiosis Introduces Variation in Traits Two events in meiosis cause variation in traits in sexually reproducing species Crossing over during prophase I of meiosis Chromosome shuffling during metaphase I of meiosis

25 Prophase I: Crossing Over Nonsister chromatids of homologous chromosomes undergo crossing over They exchange segments at the same place along their length Each ends up with new combinations of alleles not present in either parental chromosome

26 Crossing Over

27 a A maternal chromosome (purple) and paternal chromosome (blue) were duplicated earlier, during interphase. They become visible in microscopes early in prophase I, when hey star to condense to threadlike form. b Each chromosome and its homologous partner zipper together, so all four chromatids are tightly aligned. mom s allele A dad s allele a mom s allele A mom s allele A mom s allele B dad s allele b mom s allele B dad s allele b c Here is a simple way to think about crossing over. (Chromosomes are still c ondensed and threadlike, and each is tightly aligned with its homologous partner.) d Their intimate contact promotes crossing over at different places along the length of nonsister chromatids. e At the crossover site, paternal and maternal chromatids exchange corresponding segments. f Crossing over mixes up maternal and paternal alleles on homologous chromosomes. Fig. 9.6, p.144

28 Fig. 9.6a, p.144

29 Fig. 9.6b, p.144

30 Fig. 9.6c, p.144

31 Fig. 9.6d, p.144

32 Fig. 9.6e, p.144

33 Fig. 9.6f, p.144

34 Metaphase I: Chromosome Shuffling Homologous chromosomes align randomly during metaphase I Microtubules can harness either a maternal or paternal chromosome of each homologous pair to either spindle pole Either chromosome may end up in any new nucleus (gamete)

35 Chromosome Shuffling: Random Alignment

36 Key Concepts: CHROMOSOME RECOMBINATION AND SHUFFLING During meiosis, each pair of maternal and paternal chromosomes swaps segments and exchanges alleles Pairs get randomly shuffled, so forthcoming gametes end up with different mixes of maternal and paternal chromosomes

37 9.5 From Gametes to Offspring Multicelled diploid and haploid bodies are typical in life cycles of plants and animals Plants Sporophyte: A multicelled plant body (diploid) that makes haploid spores Spores give rise to gametophytes (multicelled plant bodies in which haploid gametes form)

38 From Gametes to Offspring Animals Germ cells in the reproductive organs give rise to sperm or eggs Fusion of a sperm and egg at fertilization results in a zygote

39 Comparing Plant And Animal Life Cycles

40 meiosis zygote (2n) fertilization gametes (n) meiosis a Plant life cycle multicelled sporophyte (2n) DIPLOID HAPLOID multicelled gametophyte (n) meiosis spores (n) meiosis Fig. 9.8a, p.146

41 meiosis zygote (2n) fertilization multicelled body (2n) DIPLOID HAPLOID meiosis gametes (n) b Animal life cycle Fig. 9.8b, p.146

42 Introducing Variation in Offspring Three events cause new combinations of alleles in offspring: Crossing over during prophase I (meiosis) Random alignment of maternal and paternal chromosomes at metaphase I (meiosis) Chance meeting of gametes at fertilization All three contribute to variation in traits

43 Sperm Formation in Animals

44 Egg Formation in Animals

45 Key Concepts: SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN LIFE CYCLES In animals, gametes form by different mechanisms in males and females In most plants, spore formation and other events intervene between meiosis and gamete formation

46 9.6 Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis Both mitosis and meiosis require bipolar spindle to move and sort duplicated chromosomes Some mechanisms of meiosis resemble those of mitosis, and may have evolved from them Example: DNA repair enzymes function in both

47 Differences in Mitosis and Meiosis Mitosis maintains parental chromosome number Duplicates genetic information Occurs in body cells Meiosis halves chromosome number Introduces new combinations of alleles in offspring Occurs only in cells for sexual reproduction

48 Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis

49 Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis

50 Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis

51 Key Concepts: MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS COMPARED Recent molecular evidence suggests that meiosis originated through mechanisms that already existed for mitosis and, before that, for repairing damaged DNA

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