Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles
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1 Chapter 13 Meiosis ad Sexual Life Cycles Dr. Wedy Sera Housto Commuity College Biology 1406 Variatios o a Theme Livig orgaisms are distiguished by their ability to reproduce their ow kid Geetics is the scietific study of heredity ad variatio Heredity is the trasmissio of traits from oe geeratio to the ext Variatio is demostrated by the differeces i appearace that offsprig show from parets ad sibligs Cocept 13.1: Offsprig acquire gees from parets by iheritig I a literal sese, childre do ot iherit particular physical traits from their parets It is gees that are actually iherited Figure 13.1 What accouts for family resemblace? 1
2 Iheritace of Gees Gees are the uits of heredity ad are made up of segmets of DNA Gees are passed to the ext geeratio via reproductive cells called gametes (sperm ad eggs) Most DNA is packaged ito Humas have 46 i their somatic cells, all cells of the body, except gametes ad their precursors A gee s specific positio alog a chromosome is called the locus Compariso of Asexual ad Sexual Reproductio I asexual reproductio, a sigle idividual passes all of its gees to its offsprig without the fusio of gametes A cloe is a group of geetically idetical idividuals from the same paret I sexual reproductio, two parets give rise to offsprig that have uique combiatios of gees iherited from the two parets Figure 13.2 Asexual reproductio i two multicellular orgaisms 0.5 mm Bud Paret (a) Hydra (b) Redwoods 2
3 Cocept 13.2: Fertilizatio ad meiosis alterate i sexual life cycles A life cycle is the geeratio-to-geeratio sequece of stages i the reproductive history of a orgaism Sets of Chromosomes i Huma Cells Huma somatic cells have 23 pairs of A karyotype is a ordered display of the pairs of from a cell The two i each pair are called homologous, or homologs Chromosomes i a homologous pair are the same legth ad shape ad carry gees cotrollig the same iherited characters Figure 13.3 Research method: preparig a karyotype Applicatio Techique Pair of homologous duplicated Cetromere 5 µm Metaphase chromosome 3
4 Figure 13.3 Research method: preparig a karyotype 5 µm Sets of Chromosomes i Huma Cells, cot. The sex, which determie the sex of the idividual, are called X ad Y Huma females have a homologous pair of X (XX) Huma males have oe X ad oe Y chromosome The remaiig 22 pairs of are called autosomes Sets of Chromosomes i Huma Cells, cot. Each pair of homologous icludes oe chromosome from each paret The 46 i a huma somatic cell are two sets of 23: oe set from the mother ad oe set from the father A diploid cell (2) has two sets of For humas, the diploid umber is 46 (2 = 46) 4
5 Sets of Chromosomes i Huma Cells, cot. I a cell i which DNA sythesis has occurred, each chromosome is replicated Each replicated chromosome cosists of two idetical sister Figure 13.4 Describig 2 = 6 Key Materal set of ( = 3) Pateral set of ( = 3) of oe duplicated chromosome Cetromere Two osister i a homologous pair Pair of homologous (oe from each set) Sets of Chromosomes i Huma Cells, cot. A gamete (sperm or egg) cotais a sigle set of ad is haploid () For humas, the haploid umber is 23 ( = 23) Each set of 23 cosists of 22 autosomes ad a sigle sex chromosome I a ufertilized egg (ovum), the sex chromosome is X I a sperm cell, the sex chromosome may be either X or Y 5
6 Behavior of Chromosome Sets i the Huma Life Cycle Fertilizatio is the uio of gametes (the sperm ad the egg) The fertilized egg is called a zygote ad has oe set of from each paret The zygote produces somatic cells by mitosis ad develops ito a adult Behavior of Chromosome Sets i the Huma Life Cycle, cot. At sexual maturity, the ovaries ad testes produce haploid gametes Gametes are the oly types of huma cells produced by meiosis, rather tha mitosis Meiosis results i oe set of i each gamete Fertilizatio ad meiosis alterate i sexual life cycles to maitai chromosome umber Key Haploid gametes ( = 23) Haploid () Egg () Diploid (2) Figure 13.5 The huma life cycle Sperm () MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION Ovary Testis Diploid zygote (2 = 46) Mitosis ad developmet Multicellular diploid adults (2 = 46) 6
7 The Variety of Sexual Life Cycles The alteratio of meiosis ad fertilizatio is commo to all orgaisms that reproduce sexually The three mai types of sexual life cycles differ i the timig of meiosis ad fertilizatio Figure 13.6 Three types of sexual life cycles Key Haploid () Diploid (2) MEIOSIS 2 Gametes Diploid multicellular orgaism FERTILIZATION Zygote 2 Mitosis Haploid multicellular orgaism (gametophyte) Haploid uicellular or multicellular orgaism Mitosis Mitosis Mitosis Mitosis Spores Gametes Gametes MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION 2 Diploid multicellular orgaism (sporophyte) 2 Zygote Mitosis MEIOSIS 2 Zygote (a) Aimals (b) Plats ad some algae (c) Most fugi ad some protists FERTILIZATION Sexual Life Cycles i Aimals Gametes are the oly haploid cells i aimals They are produced by meiosis ad udergo o further cell divisio before fertilizatio Gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote that divides by mitosis to develop ito a multicellular orgaism 7
8 Figure 13.6 Three types of sexual life cycles (part 1: aimal) Gametes MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION 2 Zygote 2 Diploid multicellular orgaism (a) Aimals Mitosis Key Haploid () Diploid (2) Sexual Life Cycles i Plats Plats ad some algae exhibit a alteratio of geeratios This life cycle icludes both a diploid ad haploid multicellular stage The diploid orgaism, called the sporophyte, makes haploid spores by meiosis Each spore grows by mitosis ito a haploid orgaism called a gametophyte A gametophyte makes haploid gametes by mitosis Fertilizatio of gametes results i a diploid sporophyte Haploid multicellular orgaism (gametophyte) Mitosis Mitosis Spores Gametes MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION Figure 13.6 Three types of sexual life cycles (part 2: plat) 2 Diploid multicellular orgaism (sporophyte) 2 Zygote Mitosis (b) Plats ad some algae Key Haploid () Diploid (2) 8
9 Sexual Life Cycles i Fugi & Some Protists I most fugi ad some protists, the oly diploid stage is the sigle-celled zygote; there is o multicellular diploid stage The zygote produces haploid cells by meiosis Each haploid cell grows by mitosis ito a haploid multicellular orgaism The haploid adult produces gametes by mitosis Haploid uicellular or multicellular orgaism Mitosis MEIOSIS Mitosis Gametes FERTILIZATION Figure 13.6c Three types of sexual life cycles (part 3: fugi) 2 Zygote (c) Most fugi ad some protists Key Haploid () Diploid (2) Sexual Life Cycles, cot. Depedig o the type of life cycle, either haploid or diploid cells ca divide by mitosis However, oly diploid cells ca udergo meiosis I all three life cycles, the halvig ad doublig of cotributes to geetic variatio i offsprig 9
10 Cocept 13.3: Meiosis reduces the umber of chromosome sets from diploid to haploid Like mitosis, meiosis is preceded by the replicatio of Meiosis takes place i two cosecutive cell divisios, called meiosis I ad meiosis II The two cell divisios result i four daughter cells, rather tha the two daughter cells i mitosis Each daughter cell has oly half as may as the paret cell The Stages of Meiosis Chromosomes duplicate durig iterphase The resultig sister are closely associated alog their legths This is called sister chromatid cohesio I meiosis, the are sorted ito four haploid daughter cells Iterphase Pair of homologous i diploid paret cell Pair of duplicated homologous Meiosis I Meiosis II Chromosomes duplicate Diploid cell with duplicated 1 Homologous separate Haploid cells with duplicated 2 separate Figure 13.7 Overview of meiosis: how meiosis reduces chromosome umber Haploid cells with uduplicated 10
11 Figure 13.8 Explorig meiosis i a aimal cell MEIOSIS I: Separates homologous Prophase I Metaphase I Aaphase I Telophase I ad Cytokiesis MEIOSIS II: Separates sister Prophase II Metaphase II Aaphase II Telophase II ad Cytokiesis Cetrosome Cetromere (with (with cetriole kietochore) pair) remai Chiasmata Metaphase attached Spidle plate Homologous Cleavage Homologous furrow Fragmets separate of uclear Microtubules evelope attached to kietochore separate Haploid daughter cells formig The Stages of Meiosis Meiosis I Divisio i meiosis I occurs i four phases Prophase I Metaphase I Aaphase I Telophase I ad cytokiesis Figure 13.8 MEIOSIS I: Separates homologous Prophase I Metaphase I Aaphase I Cetrosome (with cetriole pair) Chiasmata Spidle Cetromere (with kietochore) Metaphase plate remai attached Telophase I ad Cytokiesis Homologous Fragmets of uclear evelope Homologous separate Microtubules attached to kietochore Cleavage furrow 11
12 The Stages of Meiosis Meiosis I Prophase I I early prophase I each chromosome pairs with its homolog ad crossig over occurs X-shaped regios called chiasmata are sites of crossover Crossig Over ad Syapsis Durig Prophase I After iterphase, the sister are held together by proteis called cohesis The osister are broke at precisely correspodig positios A zipper-like structure called the syaptoemal complex holds the homologs together tightly DNA breaks are repaired, joiig DNA from oe osister chromatid to the correspodig segmet of aother Figure 13.9 Crossig over ad syapsis i prophase I DNA DNA breaks breaks Cetromere Cohesis Pair of homologous : Pateral sister Crossover Crossover 1 Materal sister 3 Chiasmata Syaptoemal complex formig
13 The Stages of Meiosis Meiosis I Metaphase I I metaphase I, pairs of homologs lie up at the metaphase plate, with oe chromosome facig each pole Microtubules from oe pole are attached to the kietochore of oe chromosome of each tetrad Microtubules from the other pole are attached to the kietochore of the other chromosome The Stages of Meiosis Meiosis I Aaphase I I aaphase I, pairs of homologous separate Oe chromosome of each pair moves toward opposite poles, guided by the spidle apparatus remai attached at the cetromere ad move as oe uit toward the pole The Stages of Meiosis Meiosis I Telophase I ad Cytokiesis I the begiig of telophase I, each half of the cell has a haploid set of ; each chromosome still cosists of two sister Cytokiesis usually occurs simultaeously, formig two haploid daughter cells 13
14 The Stages of Meiosis Meiosis I I aimal cells, a cleavage furrow forms; i plat cells, a cell plate forms No chromosome replicatio occurs betwee the ed of meiosis I ad the begiig of meiosis II because the are already replicated Meiosis I is called the reductioal divisio because it reduces the umber of per cell BioFlix: Meiosis The Stages of Meiosis Meiosis II Divisio i meiosis II also occurs i four phases Prophase II Metaphase II Aaphase II Telophase II ad cytokiesis Meiosis II is very similar to mitosis! 14
15 Figure 13.8 Explorig meiosis i a aimal cell (meiosis II) MEIOSIS II: Separates sister Prophase II Metaphase II Aaphase II Telophase II ad Cytokiesis separate Haploid daughter cells formig The Stages of Meiosis Meiosis II Prophase II I prophase II, a spidle apparatus forms I late prophase II, (each still composed of two ) move toward the metaphase plate The Stages of Meiosis Meiosis II Metaphase II I metaphase II, the sister are arraged at the metaphase plate Because of crossig over i meiosis I, the two sister of each chromosome are o loger geetically idetical The kietochores of sister attach to microtubules extedig from opposite poles 15
16 The Stages of Meiosis Meiosis II Aaphase II I aaphase II, the sister separate The sister of each chromosome ow move as two ewly idividual toward opposite poles The Stages of Meiosis Meiosis II Telophase II ad Cytokiesis I telophase II, the arrive at opposite poles Nuclei form, ad the begi decodesig The Stages of Meiosis Meiosis II Cytokiesis separates the cytoplasm At the ed of meiosis, there are four daughter cells, each with a haploid set of ureplicated Each daughter cell is geetically distict from the others ad from the paret cell 16
17 Figure 13.8 Explorig meiosis i a aimal cell MEIOSIS I: Separates homologous Prophase I Metaphase I Aaphase I Telophase I ad Cytokiesis MEIOSIS II: Separates sister Prophase II Metaphase II Aaphase II Telophase II ad Cytokiesis Cetrosome Cetromere (with (with cetriole kietochore) pair) remai Chiasmata Metaphase attached Spidle plate Homologous Cleavage Homologous furrow Fragmets separate of uclear Microtubules evelope attached to kietochore separate Haploid daughter cells formig A Compariso of Mitosis ad Meiosis Mitosis coserves the umber of chromosome sets, producig cells that are geetically idetical to the paret cell Meiosis reduces the umber of sets from two (diploid) to oe (haploid), producig cells that differ geetically from each other ad from the paret cell Figure A compariso of mitosis ad meiosis MITOSIS MEIOSIS Paret cell Chiasma MEIOSIS I Prophase Duplicated chromosome Chromosome duplicatio 2 = 6 Chromosome duplicatio Prophase I Homologous chromosome pair Metaphase Aaphase Telophase Idividual lie up. separate. Pairs of homologous lie up. Homologs separate. Metaphase I Aaphase I Telophase I 2 Daughter cells of mitosis 2 separate. Daughter cells of meiosis I Daughter cells of meiosis II MEIOSIS II 17
18 Figure 13.10b Property DNA replicatio Number of divisios Syapsis of homologous Number of daughter cells ad geetic compositio Role i the aimal or plat body plat Mitosis (occurs i both diploid ad haploid cells) Occurs durig iterphase before mitosis begis Oe, icludig prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, aaphase, ad telophase Does ot occur Two, each geetically idetical to the paret cell, with the same umber of Eables multicellular aimal or plat (gametophyte or sporophyte) to arise from a sigle cell; produces cells for growth, repair, ad, i some species, asexual reproductio; produces gametes i the gametophyte SUMMARY Meiosis (ca oly occur i diploid cells) Occurs durig iterphase before meiosis I begis Two, each icludig prophase, metaphase, aaphase, ad telophase Occurs durig prophase I alog with crossig over betwee osister ; resultig chiasmata hold pairs together due to sister chromatid cohesio Four, each haploid (); geetically differet from the paret cell ad from each other Produces gametes (i aimals) or spores (i the sporophyte plat); reduces umber of sets by half ad itroduces geetic variability amog the gametes or spores Evets Uique to Meiosis Three evets are uique to meiosis, ad all three occur i meiosis l Syapsis ad crossig over i prophase I: Homologous physically coect ad exchage geetic iformatio Homologous pairs at the metaphase plate Separatio of homologs durig aaphase I Cocept 13.4: Geetic variatio produced i sexual life cycles cotributes to evolutio Mutatios (chages i a orgaism s DNA) are the origial source of geetic diversity Mutatios create differet versios of gees called alleles Reshufflig of alleles durig sexual reproductio produces geetic variatio 18
19 Origis of Geetic Variatio Amog Offsprig The behavior of durig meiosis ad fertilizatio is resposible for most of the variatio that arises i each geeratio Three mechaisms cotribute to geetic variatio 1. Idepedet assortmet of 2. Crossig over 3. Radom fertilizatio Idepedet Assortmet of Chromosomes Homologous pairs of oriet radomly at metaphase I of meiosis I idepedet assortmet, each pair of sorts materal ad pateral homologs ito daughter cells idepedetly of the other pairs The umber of combiatios possible whe assort idepedetly ito gametes is 2, where is the haploid umber For humas ( = 23), there are more tha 8 millio (2 23 ) possible combiatios of! Figure The idepedet assortmet of homologous i meiosis Possibility 1 Possibility 2 Two equally probable arragemets of at metaphase I Metaphase II Daughter cells Combiatio 1 Combiatio 2 Combiatio 3 Combiatio 4 19
20 Crossig Over Crossig over produces recombiat, which combie DNA iherited from each paret Crossig over cotributes to geetic variatio by combiig DNA from two parets ito a sigle chromosome I humas, a average of oe to three crossover evets occurs per chromosome Prophase I of meiosis TEM Aaphase I Aaphase II Pair of homologs Chiasma Cetromere Nosister held together durig syapsis Syapsis ad crossig over Movemet to the metaphase I plate Breakdow of proteis holdig sister chromatid arms together Figure The results of crossig over durig meiosis Daughter cells Recombiat Radom Fertilizatio Radom fertilizatio adds to geetic variatio because ay sperm ca fuse with ay ovum (ufertilized egg) The fusio of two gametes (each with 8.4 millio possible chromosome combiatios from idepedet assortmet) produces a zygote with ay of about 70 trillio diploid combiatios Crossig over adds eve more variatio Each zygote has a uique geetic idetity 20
21 Aimatio: Geetic Variatio The Evolutioary Sigificace of Geetic Variatio Withi Populatios Natural selectio results i the accumulatio of geetic variatios favored by the eviromet Sexual reproductio cotributes to the geetic variatio i a populatio, which origiates from mutatios 21
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