Lecture one Introduction to the Cell Biology
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1 Lecture one Introduction to the Cell Biology INTRODUCTION TO THE CELL Both living and non-living things are composed of molecules made from chemical elements such as Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen. The organization of these molecules into cells is one feature that distinguishes living things from all other matter. The cell is the smallest unit of living matter that can carry on all the processes of life. The body of some organisms like bacteria, protozoans and some algae is made up of a single cell while the body of fungi, plants and animals are composed of many cells. Human body is built of about one trillion cells. THE HISTORY OF CELL DISCOVERY AND CELL THEORY 1. Landmarks in cell study Soon after Anton van Leewenhock invented the microscope, Robert Hooke in 1665 observed a piece of cork under the microscope and found it to be made of small compartments which he called cells (Latin cell = small room). In 1672, Leewenhock observed bacteria, sperm and red blood corpuscles, all of which were cells. In 1831, Robert Brown, an Englishman observed that all cells had a centrally positioned body which he termed the nucleus. 2. The cell theory In 1838 M.J. Schleiden and Theodore Schwann formulated the cell theory. The cell theory maintains that a. All living things are composed of one or more cells. b. Cells are the basic units of structure and function in an organism. 1
2 c. Cells come only from the replication of existing cells. 3. The Cell A cell may be defined as a unit of protoplasm bounded by a plasma or cell membrane and possessing a nucleus. Protoplasm is the life giving substance and includes the cytoplasm and the nucleus. The cytoplasm has in it organelles such as ribosomes, mitochondria, golgi bodies plastids, lysosomes and endoplasmic reticulum. Plant cells have in their cytoplasm large vacuoles containing non-living materials inclusions like crystals, pigments etc. The bacteria have neither organelles nor a well-formed nucleus. But every cell has three major components: _ plasma membrane. _ cytoplasm. _ DNA (naked in prokaryote like bacteria or covered by a membrane in all other organisms. Figure 1.1: Robert Hooke's Microscope. Robert Hooke's drawing of the microscopic image of cork. Micrographia, CELL DIVERSITY Not all cells are alike. Even cells within the same organism show enormous diversity in size, shape, and internal organization. Human body contains around to cells of around 300 different cell types. 2
3 CELL SIZE Actual observation of cells awaited development of the first, crude microscopes in the early 1600s. There are two kinds of microscope: 1. A compound microscope, the most useful type of light microscope, has two lenses. The total magnifying power is the product of the magnification by each lens. As better lenses were invented, the magnifying power and the ability to distinguish closely spaced objects, the resolution, increased greatly. Modern compound microscopes magnify the view about a thousand fold, so that a bacterium 1 micrometer (1 μm) long looks like it s a millimeter long. Objects about 0.2 μm apart can be discerned in these instruments. Microscopy is most powerful when particular components of the cell are stained or labeled specifically, enabling them to be easily seen and located within the cell. A simple example is staining with dyes that bind specifically to DNA to visualize the chromosomes. Chromosomes are 3
4 visible in the light microscope only during mitosis, when they become highly condensed. 2. Electron microscopes use a focused beam of electrons instead of a beam of light. In transmission electron microscopy, specimens are cut into very thin sections and placed under a high vacuum, precluding examination of living cells. The resolution of transmission electron microscopes, about 0.1 nm, permits fine structural details to be distinguished, and their powerful magnification would make a 1 μm-long bacterial cell look like a soccer ball. Most of the organelles in eukaryotic cells and the double-layered structure of the plasma membrane were first observed with electron microscopes. Types of Cells The biological universe consists of two types of cells prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells consist of a single closed compartment that is surrounded by the plasma membrane, lacks a defined nucleus, and has a relatively simple internal organization (Figure 1-2a). Although bacterial cells do not have membrane-bounded compartments, many proteins are localized in their aqueous phase or cytosol, indicating the presence of internal organization. All prokaryotes have cells of this type, for example: Bacteria, the most numerous prokaryotes, are single-celled organisms; the cyanobacteria, or blue-green algae, can be unicellular or filamentous chains of cells. Prokaryotic cells have been found 7 miles deep in the ocean and 40 miles up in the atmosphere; they are quite adaptable. Eukaryotic cells, unlike prokaryotic cells, contain a defined membranebound nucleus and extensive internal membranes that enclose other compartments, the organelles (Figure 1-2b). The region of the cell lying between the plasma membrane and the nucleus is the cytoplasm, 4
5 comprising the cytosol (aqueous phase) and the organelles. Eukaryotes comprise all members of the plant and animal kingdoms, including the fungi, which exist in both multicellular forms (molds) and unicellular forms (yeasts), and the protozoans which are exclusively unicellular. Eukaryotic cells are commonly about μm across, generally much larger than bacteria. A typical human fibroblast, a connective tissue cell, might be about 15 μm across with a volume and dry weight some thousands of times those of an E. coli bacterial cell. An amoeba, a single celled protozoan, can be more than 0.5 mm long. An ostrich egg begins as a single cell that is even larger and easily visible to the naked eye. Table 1.1 Differences between Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells Cell structures Eukaryotic cell (eu = true, karyon = nucleus) Prokaryotic cell (Pro = early/primitive) Nucleus Present Absent Number of chromosomes True Membrane bound Nucleus Cell Type More than one Present Usually multicellular (some fungi, yeast and protozoa are unicellular) One--but not true chromosome: Plasmids Absent Usually unicellular (some cyanobacteria may be multicellular) Example Animals and Plants Bacteria and Archaea Cell size μm 1-10 μm Cell wall Only in plant cells and fungi (chemically simpler) Usually chemically complexed 5
6 FIGURE 1-2 Prokaryotic cells have a simpler internal organization than eukaryotic cells. (a) Electron micrograph of a thin section of Escherichia coli, a common intestinal bacterium. The nucleoid, consisting of the bacterial DNA, is not enclosed within a membrane. E. coli and some other bacteria are surrounded by two membranes separated by the periplasmic space. The thin cell wall is adjacent to the inner membrane. (b) Electron micrograph of a plasma cell, a type of white blood cell that secretes antibodies. Only a single membrane (the plasma membrane) surrounds the cell, but the interior contains many membrane-limited compartments, or organelles. The defining characteristic of eukaryotic cells is segregation of the cellular DNA within a defined nucleus, which is bounded by a double membrane. 6
7 The plant cell and the animal cell also differ in several respects as given in Figure 1.3 and Table 1.2. Table: 1.2 Difference between plant cell and animal cell Plant cell Animal cell 1. Cellulose cell wall present 1. No cell wall. around cell membrane. 2. Vacuoles are usually large. 2. Generally vacuoles are absent and if present, are usually small.. 3. Plastids present 3. Plastids absent. 4. Golgi body present in the form 4. Golgi body well developed. of units known as dictyosomes. 5. Centriole absent. 5. Centriole present. Figure: 1.3 Difference between plant cell and animal cell. 7
8 Viruses Are the Ultimate Parasites Virus-caused diseases are numerous and all too familiar: chicken pox, influenza, rabies, hepatitis, the common cold, and many others. Smallpox, once a worldwide scourge, was eradicated by a decade-long global immunization effort beginning in the mid 1960s. Viral infections in plants (e.g., dwarf mosaic virus in corn) have a major economic impact on crop production. Planting of virus-resistant varieties, developed by traditional breeding methods and more recently by genetic engineering techniques, can reduce crop losses significantly. Most viruses have a rather limited host range, infecting certain bacteria, plants, or animals (Figure 1-4). FIGURE 1-4 Viruses must infect a host cell to grow and reproduce. These electron micrographs illustrate some of the structural variety exhibited by viruses. (a) T4 bacteriophage (bracket) attaches to a bacterial cell via a tail structure. Viruses that infect bacteria are called bacteriophages, or simply phages. (b) Tobacco mosaic virus causes a mottling of the leaves of infected tobacco plants and stunts their growth. (c) Adenovirus causes eye and respiratory tract infections in humans. This virus has an outer membranous envelope from which long glycoprotein spikes protrude. 8
9 Because viruses cannot grow or reproduce on their own, they are not considered to be alive. To survive, a virus must infect a host cell and take over its internal machinery to synthesize viral proteins and in some cases to replicate the viral genetic material. When newly made viruses are released, the cycle starts anew. Viruses are much smaller than cells, on the order of 100 nanometer (nm) in diameter; in comparison, bacterial cells are usually _1000 nm (1 nm_10_9 meters). A virus is typically composed of a protein coat that encloses a core containing the genetic material, which carries the information for producing more viruses. The coat protects a virus from the environment and allows it to stick to, or enter, specific host cells. In some viruses, the protein coat is surrounded by an outer membrane-like envelope. The ability of viruses to transport genetic material into cells and tissues represents a medical menace and a medical opportunity. Viral infections can be destructive, causing cells to break open and tissues to fall apart. However, many methods for manipulating cells depend upon using viruses to convey genetic material into cells. To do this, the portion of the viral genetic material that is potentially harmful is replaced with other genetic material, including human genes. The altered viruses, or vectors, still can enter cells toting the introduced genes with them. 9
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