Bacterial Control of. Mosquitoes & Black Flies

Transcription

1 Bacterial Control of Mosquitoes & Black Flies

2 Bacterial Control of Mosquitoes & Black Flies Biochemistry, Genetics & Applications of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis and Bacillus sphaericus Huguette de Batjac DonaldJ. Sutherland EDITORS UNWIN HYMAN London

3 Rutgers University Press, 1990 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 1990 This book is copyright under the Berne Convention. No reproduction without permission. All rights reserved. ISBN-13: e-isbn-13 : DOT: / British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Information available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bacterial control of mosquitoes and black flies: biochemistry genetics, and applications of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis and Bacillus sphaericus / H. de Barjac, D. J. Sutherland, editors. p. cm. Includes bibliographic references 1. Bacillus thuringiensis. 2. Bacillus sphaericus. 3. Mosquitoes-biological control. 4. Simuliidae-Biological control. I. Barjac, Huguette de. II. Sutherland, Donald J. QR82.B3B '32-dc CIP

4 Contents Contributors xv Foreword Preface xix xvii PART! Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis (B.t.i.) 1 Discovery of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis 3 Joel Margalit 1. 1 Introduction 1.2 Geography, Climate, and Environmental Conditions 1.3 Detection and Isolation 2 Characterization and Prospective View of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis 10 Huguette de Barjac 3 Parasporal Body of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis: Structure, Protein Composition, and Toxicity 16 Brian A. Federici, Peter Liithy, and Jorge E. Ibarra 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Synthesis 3.3 Structure 3.4 Purification and Solubilization 3.5 Protein Composition 3.6 Toxicity Intact or Solubilized Parasporal Body The 27-kDa Protein The 65-kDa Protein The 128- and 135-kDa Proteins Synergistic Interaction of Toxic Proteins

5 vi / Contents 3.7 Mosquiticidal Parasporal Bodies of Other Subspecies of B. thuringiensis 3.8 Discussion 4 Mechanism of Action of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis Parasporal Body 45 Chris N. Chilcott, Barbara H. Knowles, David]. EUar, and Francis A. Drobniewski 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Mechanism of Action Receptors Toxin Structure and Membrane Insertion Colloid-Osmotic Lysis Theory Toxin Oligomerization 4.3 Discussion 5 Genetics of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis 66 VaithiIingam Sekar 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Genetic Exchange Systems Transformation Transduction Plasmid Transfer 5.3 Plasmids and Crystal Toxin Production Plasmids and Plasmid Curing Analysis Location of the 8-endotoxin Gene 5.4 Cloning of the Crystal Toxin Gene( s ) 5.s Genetics and Biochemistry of the Crystal Toxin 5.6 Conclusions 6 Cloning of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis Mosquito Toxin Genes 78 Thomas M. Boyle and Donald H. Dean 6. 1 Introduction 6.2 Early Confusion in CloningB.t.i. Toxin Protein Genes 6.3 Current Picture of B. t. i. Toxin Protein Genes 6.4 Discussion

6 Contents / vii 7 Transfer of the Bacillus tburingiensis israelensis Mosquiticidal Toxin Gene into Mosquito Larval Food Sources 94 Kathleen C. Raymond, Hiroetsu Wabiko, Robert M. Faust, and Lee A. Bulla, Jr. 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Assignment of Toxic Activity 7.3 Cloning of the Mosquito Toxin Gene 7.4 Mosquito and Black Fly Larval Food Sources 7.5 Introduction of the Mosquito Toxin Gene into Larval Food Sources 7.6 Safety Aspects 8 Potential for Improved Formulations of Bacillus tburingiensis israelensis through Standardization and Fermentation Development 110 Howard T. Dulmage,Jose A. Correa, and Gabriel Gallegos Moraies 8.1 Introduction 8.2 History Background Discovery and Early History Standardizing and Measuring B. t. Products Early Concepts The Spore Count Bioassays and the International Unit Philosophical Differences between Bioassays of Chemical and Microbial Insecticides Bioassays and the LC so Choice of Insect Species for Bioassay The International Unit The de Barjac Protocol for B. t. i.; Its Design and Principles Preparation of Stock Suspension of the Standard Preparation of Suspension of the Test Samples Specifications for Larvae Used in Assay Reading the Assay Evaluations of Assays and Their Reproducibility

7 viii / Contents 8.4 Activity Ratios Definition of Activity Ratios Use and Significance of Activity Ratios TnlHv Ratios of subspecies kurstaki Cq/ Aa Ratios of subspecies israelensis Reproducibility of Activity Ratios in Fermentation Studies 8.5 Potential for Improvements in Production of the B. t i. Toxin Fermentation Strain Selection Recovery Aeration Selection of Nutrients Spore-crystal Formulations Viable Spore-free Formulations 8.6 Summary Bioassays and the Production of B. t Bioassays and the Future of B. t 9 Activity, Field Efficacy, and Use of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis against Mosquitoes 134 MirS. Mulla 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Laboratory Evaluation Screening Procedures Preliminary Screening Species Specificity Instar Susceptibility Biotic and Abiotic Factors Influencing Activity Delayed Effects 9.3 Field Evaluation and Efficacy Trials Spectrum of Field Activity Floodwater Mosquitoes Anopheles Mosquitoes Culex Mosquitoes Persistence and Recycling

8 Contents / ix 9.4 Impact on Nontarget Organisms 9.5 Microbial Larvicides in Integrated Control of Mosquitoes 10 Progress in the Biological Control of Black Flies with Bacillus thuringiensis israeiensis, with Emphasis on Temperate Climates 161 Daniel P. Molloy 10.1 Nature of the Black Fly Problem in Temperate Climates Advent of B. t. i. Trends in Recent Research Efforts Factors Affecting the Efficacy of B. t. i. against Black Flies Environmental Parameters Discharge Stream Profile Turbidity Pollutants Water Temperature ph Degree of Vertical Mixing in the Water Column Reduced Water Velocity Due to Negative Relief Attachment of B. t. i. to Benthic Substrates/Sediments Other Factors Black Fly Parameters Larval Age Species Feeding Behavior Formulation Parameters Particle Size Powdered versus liquid Formulations Formulation Additives Treatment Parameters Concentration

9 x / Contents Duration of Application Preparation of Powdered Formulations Lack of Correlation in Formulation Potency against Black Flies and Mosquitoes Effect of B. t. i. on Black Fly Populations Effect of B. t. i. on Nontarget Populations Toxicity Inducement of Drift Treatment and Assessment Methodologies Discharge Calculation Treatment Assessments of Black Fly Mortality Product/Formulation Improvement Area-control Programs Possibility of Resistance Research Priorities in Temperate Climates Conclusions 11 Use of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis for Onchocerciasis Control in West Africa 187 Pierre Guillet, Daniel C. Kurtak, Bernard Philippon, and Rolf Meyer Introduction 11.2 The Search for Suitable B. t. i. Formulations 11.3 Operational Use of B. t. i. in the OCP 11.4 Discussion and Prospects 12 Mammalian Safety of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis 202 Joel P. Siegel and John A. Shadduck 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Source and Preparation of Cultures 12.3 Results and Discussion Oral and Intraperitoneal Summary Administration Subcutaneous Injection Aerosol Exposure Intracerebral Injection Clearance Ocular Irritancy 12.5 Summary of Other Studies

10 Contents / xi PART 2 Bacillus spbaericus 13 Introduction to the Study of Bacillus spbaericus as a Mosquito Control Agent 221 Samuel Singer 13.1 Introduction 13.2 History of Extant Strains 13.3 Future Strains 14 Classification of Bacillus spbaericus Strains and Comparative Toxicity to Mosquito Larvae 228 Huguette de Barjac 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Different Approaches to the Classification and Characterization of Toxic Strains 14.3 Comparative Toxicity of Various Serotypes 14.4 Distribution of the Larvicidal Strains and Activity Ratios 15 The Mosquito Larval Toxin of Bacillus spbaericus 237 Elizabeth W. Davidson and Allan A. Yousten 15.1 Location of the Toxin in the Bacterial Cell 15.2 Biochemical Nature of the Toxin 15.3 Pathology in the Host 15.4 Host Range of the Toxin 15.5 Pathology of the Toxin in Cultured Cells 15.6 Comparison of the B. spbaericus Toxin with the B. t. i. Toxin 16 Genetics of Bacillus spbaericus 256 William F. Burke,Jr., and Karen A Orzech 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Evidence of Genetic Heterogeneity within the Species B. spbaericus Naturally Occurring Antibiotic Resistances in B. spbaericus Auxotrophic Mutants of B. spbaericus Transformation of B. spbaericus with Plasmid DNA 16.6 B. spbaericus Mutants with limited Restriction Endonuclease Activity 16.7 Evidence for the Existence ofabsp 1593 Modification System

11 xii / Contents 16.8 Conjugal Transfer of pam 131 in B. spbaericus Construction of Plasmid Vectors for Cloning in B. spbaericus Cloning of B. spbaericus Larvicidal Toxin Genes 17 Local Production of Bacillus spbaericus 272 Amaret Bhumiratana 17.1 Introduction 17.2 The Need for Local Production of B. spbaericus 17.3 Growth and Cultivating Conditions for B. spbaericus 17.4 Formulation of B. spbaericus 17.5 Economics of Local Production of B. spbaericus 17.6 Conclusions 18 Persistence and Formulation of Bacillus spbaericus 284 Lawrence A. Lacey 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Factors Affecting Residual Activity Definitions Water Quality, Depth, and Feeding Behavior Solar Radiation Species Susceptibility Recycling 18.3 Formulation: Field Efficacy Granules Flowable Concentrates Sustained-release Formulations Storage Considerations 18.4 Recommendations for Future Formulation Research 19 Formulations and Persistence of Bacillus spbaericus in Culex quinquefasciatus Larval Sites in Tropical Africa 295 Jean Marc Hougard 19.1 Introduction

12 Contents / xiii 19.2 Field Evaluation Wettable Powder Flowable Concentrate Bacteriological Tests 19.4 Discussion Persistence ofb. spbaericus in the Field Recycling of B. spbaericus in the Field 19.5 Conclusions 19.6 Summary 20 Field Trials of Bacillus spbaericus for Mosquito Control 307 Han-HengYap 20.1 Introduction 20.2 General Information on Field Trials 20.3 Field Trials against Culex 20.4 Field Trials against Aedes, AnoPbeles, Mansonia, and Psoropbora 20.5 Discussion 21 Mammalian Safety of Bacillus spbaericus 321 Joel P. Siegel and John A. Shadduck 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Source and Preparation of Cultures Results and Discussion Subcutaneous and Intraperitoneal Injection Intradermal Injection Ocular Irritancy Intraocular Injection Ocular Persistence Intracerebral Injection 21.4 Summary of Other Studies Conclusion PART 3 The Future 22 The Future of Bacterial Control of Mosquito and Black Fly Larvae 335 Donald]. Sutherland

13 xiv / Contents 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Perspective for the Next Decade Supportive Factors Counterfactors 22.3 Prospects for the Future Index 343

14 Contributors Huguette de Barjac, Institut Pasteur, 28, Rue Du Dr Roux, Paris, France Amaret Bhumiratana, Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Rama VI Road, Bangkok 10400, Thailand Thomas M. Boyle, Department of Biochemistry, Ohio State University, 484 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio Lee A. Bulla,Jr., Department of Molecular Biology, College of Agriculture, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming William F. Burke,Jr., Department of Microbiology, Arizona State Univer Sity, Tempe, Arizona Chris N. Chilcott, DSIR, Entomology Division, Mt. Albert Research Centre, Auckland 3, New Zealand Jose A. Correa, U.S. Department of Agriculture, ARS-SPA SR, Weslaco, Texas Elizabeth W. Davidson, Department of Zoology, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona Donald H. Dean, Department of Biochemistry, Ohio State University, 484 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio Francis A. Drobniewski, St. Bartholemew's Hospital Medical College, West Smithfield, London, EC 1, UK Howard T. Dulmage, H. D. Associates, P. O. Box 4113, Brownsville, Texas DavidJ. Ellar, Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 lqw, UK, England Robert M. Faust, Plant Protection Institute, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland Brian A. Federici, Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, California Gabriel Gallegos-Morales, Facultad de Ciencias Biologicas, Universidad Autonoma de Nuevo Leon, APDO. Postal 414, San Nicolas de Los Garza, N.L., c.p Pierre Guillet, O.M.S.-ONCHO, O.c.P., Boite Postale 2279, Bamako, Mali Jean-Marc Hougard, Centre Pasteur Du Cameroun, BP 1274, Yaounde, Cameroun Jorge E. Ibarra, Centro de Investigacion y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politecnico Nacional, Unidad Irapuato, Irapuato, Mexico xv

15 xvi / Contributors Barbara H. Knowles, AFRC Unit of Insect Neurophysiology and Pharmacology, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, UK Daniel c. Kurtak, 3115 Cottonwood Creek Road, Chewelah, Washington Lawrence A. Lacey, USDA, ARS, Japanese Beetle Control Program, Box 194, APO New York Peter Liithy, Department of Microbiology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Universitatstrasse 2, 8006, Zurich, Suisse Joel Margalit, Center for Biological Control of Mosquitoes, Ben Gurion University of Negev, P. O. Box 653, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel Rolf Meyer, O.M.S.-ONCHO, OCP., Boite Postale 1474, Bouake-Ol, Cote d'ivoire Daniel P. Molloy, Biological Survey, New York State Museum, State Education Department, Cultural Education Center, Albany, New York Mir S. Mulla, Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, California Karen A. Orzech, Department of Botany and Microbiology, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona Bernard Philippon, ORSTOM, 70-74, route d'aulnay, Bondy, France Kathleen C. Raymond, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana Vaithilingam Sekar, Department of Biotechnology, School of Biological SCiences, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, India John A. Shadduck, The Texas Veterinary Medical Center, College ofveterinary Medicine, Texas A & M University, College Station, Texas Joel P. Siegel, Illinois Natural History Survey, Center for Economic Entomology, Champaign, Illinois Samuel Singer, Department of Biological Sciences, Western Illinois University, Macomb, Illinois DonaldJ. Sutherland, Mosquito Research and Control, Department of Entomology and Economic Zoology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey Hiroetsu Wabiko, Biotechnology Institute, Akita Prefectural College of Agriculture, Minami 2-2, Ogata-Mura, Akita o 10-04, Japan Han-Heng Yap, Vector Control Research Project, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia Alan A. Yousten, Department of Biology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

16 Foreword Mosquitoes and black flies are a constant threat to health and comfort, yet the modern chemical pesticides used to control them have created serious ecological problems. Populations of resistant mosquitoes and black flies have evolved, beneficial insects and natural predators have been destroyed, and environmental pollution has increased worldwide. Therefore, scientists have energetically sought new, environmentally safe technologies to combat mosquitoes and black flies and the diseases they carry. Among the most effective alternative means of controlling these pests are the highly specific microbial agents derived from Bacillus tburingiensis or Bacillus spbaericus. The microbial control of mosquitoes and black flies is a very important, rapidly developing area of science. Entomologists and microbiologists have already achieved spectacular successes using B. tburingiensis and B. spbaericus against these pests. Recent discoveries of new bacterial isolates specific to new hosts and recent genetic improvements in these isolates have created the potential for wide-scale use of these biological control agents. Efficient microbial control of mosquitoes and black flies can now be achieved, but a proper knowledge of factors relating to the safe and effective use of these biological control agents is necessary. The efficacy of B. tburingiensis and B. spbaericus is influenced by the inherent differential tolerance of the target mosquitoes or black flies, by the formulation technology and application of these agents, and by environmental factors, especially sunlight and temperature. Bacterial Control of Mosquitoes and Black Flies provides the first integrated presentation of the status of B. tburingiensis subsp. israelensis (B. t. i ) and B. spbaericus as effective biocontrol agents. This volume incorporates information on principal developments, basic and applied concepts, and safety issues and presents a balanced and comprehensive picture of current trends in environmentally acceptable use of B. tburingiensis and B. spbaericus. The contributors to this volume, invited from universities and research institutes around the world, are well known in this field. They discuss the various aspects of biological control research and outline strategies to achieve control without endangering humans or the environment. Some chapters deal with as yet unpublished experimental data, others with recent literature, and still others with prospects for future improvements and research. All contribute unpublished information and personal interpretation xvii

17 xviii / Foreword and conclusions. Several authors present imaginative and provocative new hypotheses and suggest experimental approaches that might be applied in the future. Others survey the status of research and determine areas in which research is limited or lacking. The contributors bring into sharp focus current directions of research, and they collate the large body of information and the vast array of data that continue to accumulate in the field of microbial control of mosquitoes and black flies. The primary purpose of this treatise is to provide a stimulating forum for discussion of new ideas about controlling mosquitoes and black flies. Since no comparable book is available, the volume will be virtually indispensable for all those interested in the control of mosquitoes and black flies, especially those specifically interested in microbial control. It will be of special interest to medical entomologists, protozoologists, physicians, veterinarians, ecologists, research workers, science teachers, and graduate students. Ecological problems created by chemical insect control methods and their relevance to human health are receiving increased attention everywhere. The combined efforts of eminent contributors to this volume will undoubtedly benefit all interested in biological control and in ways to improve the environment. Karl Maramorosch Robert L Starkey Professor of Microbiology, Rutgers University

18 Preface The genesis of this volume was a symposium entitled the "Future of Bacillus tburingiensis israelensis and Bacillus spbaericus in Vector Control," held at the Fifty-first Annual Meeting of the American Mosquito Control Association, 1985, in Atlantic City, New Jersey. At that time, Professor de Barjac, the symposium organizer, was a Rutgers University Visiting Professor in the Mosquito Research and Control Laboratories of Dr. Sutherland, the program chairman for the meeting. The symposium was an important forum providing for an exchange of information between microbiologists and vector control scientists. From the symposium it was evident that the subject warranted a more complete review, analysis, and publication to encourage continued interaction among such scientists and thereby further stimulate the development of these and other bacteria as vector control agents or resources. To this end, symposium participants and other leaders in the field were invited to contribute chapters to this volume, covering aspects such as biochemistry, mode of action, genetics, and practical aspects associated with the use of these bacteria. The preparation of this volume has been a global effort. Contributors from many countries and regions have provided their analyses of and perspectives on subjects in which advancements are being rapidly made, and they have incorporated such advancements as much as possible in the final presentation. The editors gratefully acknowledge the authors for their outstanding contributions. Excellent assistance in the preparation of final text has been provided by Mrs. A. Hajek and Mrs. P. Horan at Rutgers University and Mrs. M. F. Blanc at Pasteur Institute, and we gratefully acknowledge the subvention support of the Rutgers University Research Council. Invariably, advancements are accompanied by the coinage of new terms such as mosquiticidal It joins a long series of terms including insecticide, nematicide, fungicide, larvicide, adulticide, entomicide, and even homicide, which may be convenient in indicating toxicity to or death of a target. However, if the goal is to find more specific agents to control specific pests, terms such as culicicide (for Diptera:Culicidae; mosquitoes) and simuliicide (for Diptera:Simuliidae; black flies) may come into usage for the two bacilli, the subjects of this volume. The value and appropriateness of such terms remain to be seen. Certainly, in recognition of the current perception of the specificity of these agents, and their value, they should not be termed biocides. xix

19 Bacterial Control oj Mosquitoes & Black Flies