BIOLOGY MIDTERM EXAM REVIEW

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August Domenic Holland
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1 BIOLOGY MIDTERM EXAM REVIEW

2 The Science of Life Biology is the science of LIFE. Life: Organisms are made from and develop from cells! Unicellular Multicellular Cells of multicellular organisms undergo differentiation.

3 The Science of Life Cell differentiation is a process in which a generic cell develops into a specific type of cell in response to specific triggers from the body or the cell itself.

4 The Science of Life Biology is the science of LIFE. Life: All living things maintain stable internal conditions know as homeostasis! All organisms reproduce they pass down their genetic information to offspring through DNA. Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction

5 The Science of Life Asexual reproduction 1. Binary Fission (prokaryotes) 2. Mitosis (eukaryotes) Results in identical cells, or clones of the parents!! Sexual reproduction 1. Meiosis (eukaryotes) Results in gametes - sex cells (sperm and egg) Cuts chromosomes in half Adds genetic variety!!

6 The Science of Life Biology is the science of LIFE. Life: Populations of organisms evolve or change over time. All organisms interact with their living and non-living environment. Ecology branch of biology that studies these interactions.

7 The Science of Life Biology is the science of LIFE. Life: All living things must obtain energy. Heterotrophs Autotrophs Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

8 The Science of Life SCIENTIFIC METHOD: How Scientists solve a problem or answer a question

9 The Science of Life

10 The Science of Life Measurement

11 Chemistry Everything in the universe is made of matter. Everything in the universe has mass.

12 Chemistry Elements are pure substances that can not be broken down into simpler kinds of matter

13 Chemistry An Atom is the simplest particle of an element.

14 Chemistry Atoms are held together by bonds Covalent Bonds Ionic Bonds

15 Chemistry States of Matter: Energy & Matter

16 Chemistry Chemical Reactions: Energy is released Energy is absorbed

17 Chemistry Solutions:

18 Chemistry Acids and Bases Acid: Base: Neutral 7.0

19 Chemistry Properties of Water Capillarity

20 BIOCHEMISTRY The Building Blocks of Life: Four types of macromolecules (large, carbon-based organic molecules) are found in living organisms. The Element of Life

21 BIOCHEMISTRY The Building Blocks of Life: The Molecules of Life: Most are polymers chains of smaller molecules (monomers) that form through dehydration synthesis. (the loss or removal of a water molecule).

22 Carbohydrates: BIOCHEMISTRY Energy-storing molecules containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio. Monosaccharides, such as glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ), are single-sugar subunits (monomers) often found as rings. Disaccharides have two monosaccharide subunits Polysaccharides, such as starch (plant storage), glycogen (animal storage), and cellulose (plant fiber), are long chains of sugars.

23 BIOCHEMISTRY Lipids: Hydrocarbon-based molecules that are hydrophobic - (insoluble in water or water hating ). There are three main families of lipids: Fats, Oils & Waxes, Steroids and Phospholipids

24 BIOCHEMISTRY FATS & OILS: Large, HIGH energy-storing molecules, each built from two components: One molecule of glycerol, a three-carbon alcohol. Three fatty acids, long hydrocarbon chains that attach to the glycerol backbone. (Hence, fats are also called triglycerides.)

25 BIOCHEMISTRY Steroids: Four fused-hydrocarbon rings, such as cholesterol. Phospholipids: Glycerol with two fatty acids and a phosphate group attached (found in cell membranes).

26 BIOCHEMISTRY PROTIENS Long polymer chains called polypeptides built from single amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.

27 BIOCHEMISTRY PROTIENS Every amino acid contains a central carbon with an amino group (NH 2 ), a carboxyl group (COOH), hydrogen (H), and one of 20 side groups (R) that makes each amino acid different.

28 BIOCHEMISTRY ENZYMES: Enzymes are proteins capable of speeding chemical reactions without being consumed (used). Enzymes lower the amount of energy needed to start a reaction. The substrate binds to the enzyme s active site in an induced fit, in which the enzyme changes its shape to wrap itself around the substrate.

29 ENZYMES: BIOCHEMISTRY Enzymes have a variety of functions in the body, including: digesting food Transmitting nerve impulses making our muscles work.

30 BIOCHEMISTRY NUCLEIC ACIDS: Polymers of nucleotides that encode genetic information. There are two forms: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).

31 BIOCHEMISTRY NUCLEIC ACIDS: Individual nucleotides are linked by phosphate bonds and contain three basic parts: *Phosphate group, *5 carbon sugar (deoxyribose or ribose) and a nitrogenous base.

32 BIOCHEMISTRY NUCLEIC ACIDS: The double helix (double strand) is formed from weak hydrogen bonds between complementary nitrogenous bases (adenine and thymine; guanine and cytosine) on opposite strands of a the DNA molecule.

33 BIOCHEMISTRY NUCLEIC ACIDS: Complementary Base Pairing: In DNA, nitrogenous base Adenine always pairs with Thymine; Cytosine always pairs with Guanine

34 BIOCHEMISTRY

35 Structure & Function of the Cell THE CELL THEORY 1. Every living organism is made up of cells 2. Cells are the lowest level of structure capable of performing all the activities of life. 3. All cells arise from preexisting cells.

36 Structure & Function of the Cell Not all cells are alike Cells are limited in size by the ration between their surface area and volume A cells shape determines its function

TYPES OF CELLS Prokaryotic Cells simple cell, no membrane

but have ribosomes) Eukaryotic Cells more complex cell,

37 TYPES OF CELLS Prokaryotic Cells simple cell, no membrane bound nucleus (only nucleoid region with DNA) or no membrane bound organelles (i.e no mitochondria, golgi body, etc. but have ribosomes) Eukaryotic Cells more complex cell, membrane bound nucleus (DNA containing) and organelles. Bacteria Cell (Prokaryotic) Animal Cell & Plant Cell (Eukaryotic)

38 TYPES OF CELLS

39 CELL MEMBRANE Cell membrane: Serves as an external barrier and encloses organelles. The basic unit of the cell membrane is the phospholipid bi-layer molecule Cell membranes are semipermeable, allowing passage of gases (O 2 & CO 2 ), lipids, and small polar molecules but not charged molecules (ions and proteins) or large polar molecules without the use of ENERGY (ATP).

40 CELL MEMBRANE Membrane proteins embedded in the bilayer help transport molecules unable to cross the membrane independently

41 TYPES OF CELLS Cells of Eukaryotes: Eukaryotes include multicellular plants and animals, fungi and some unicellular protists. Their cells contain membrane-bound organelles, each of which performs specific functions.

42 TYPES OF CELLS Nucleus: Membrane-bound storage site of genetic information that determines heredity and directs the activities of a cell. Mitochondria: Membrane bound Power plant of the cell and the location of aerobic respiration.

43 TYPES OF CELLS Smooth/rough endoplasmic reticulum (SER/RER): Network of membranes where lipids and proteins are synthesized. Rough ER is covered with ribosomes. Golgi apparatus: Organelle that packages and exports proteins and lipids produced in the ER.

44 TYPES OF CELLS Vesicles: Sacs in which substances are transported or stored. Lysosomes: Vesicles of digestive enzymes that degrade old cellular components.

45 TYPES OF CELLS Plant cells contain several additional components: Chloroplasts: Sites of photosynthesis. Contain chlorophyll (a green pigment) and have a double membrane. Vacuole: Vesicle used to store water, proteins, and wastes. Cell wall: Rigid cellulose layer around the cell membrane.

46 ORGANELLES

47 TYPES OF CELLS Cells of Prokaryotes: Prokaryotes include the simplest unicellular organisms and were the earliest cells to evolve (bacteria). **Major differences from eukaryotes** Genetic material (DNA) floats in the cytoplasm in a concentrated but unbounded region called the nucleoid. There are no membrane-bound organelles.

48 TYPES OF CELLS

49 CELL REPRODUCTION DNA is the cell s genetic material; chromosomes are the carriers of this genetic information. In prokaryotes, the chromosome is a single circle of DNA. In eukaryotes, each chromosome is a complex of DNA and proteins found in the nucleus.

50 CELL REPRODUCTION Prokaryotic cells reproduce via binary fission (asexual). In this process, DNA is replicated, and the cell splits in two roughly equal parts, each with a copy of the cell s DNA. Eukaryotic cells reproduce sexually via the creation of two identical diploid cells from one diploid cell. Diploid (2N) refers to the total number of chromosomes in autosomal cells.

51 HOMESTASIS & TRANSPORT Diffusion & Passive Transport (Require No Energy): Molecules move freely across a membrane to balance a concentration gradient, from areas of high to low concentration. Diffusion of water is called osmosis.

52 HOMESTASIS & TRANSPORT Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a membrane. Like other molecules, water will move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration (depends on the environment surrounding cell). Hypertonic - Solution that has a higher concentration of solute and a lower concentration of water than the cell. Water Water Water Hypotonic - Solution that has a lower concentration of solute and a higher concentration of water than the cell.

53 HOMESTASIS & TRANSPORT Diffusion & Passive Transport (Require No Energy): Facilitated diffusion: Molecules cross an impermeable or semipermeable membrane down their concentration gradient but must do so via special channels.

54 HOMESTASIS & TRANSPORT Active transport (Require Energy) Transport of molecules from areas of low to high concentrations across a membrane using an ATP Energy-dependent transport protein. Endocytosis: Enveloping of an exterior substance within a membranous vesicle for admission to the cell interior. Pinocytosis: Endocytosis of dissolved liquid molecules. Phagocytosis: Endocytosis of undissolved solid matter. Exocytosis: Extrusion of material from a cell by discharge from vesicles at the cell surface.

55 HOMESTASIS & TRANSPORT.

56 CLASSIFICATION To study so many life-forms, biologists have organized them into numerous groups based on their similar characteristics. Classifying and naming organisms is key to distinguishing, describing and understanding the relationships between living and non-living (extinct) organisms. The branch of biology that deals with classification of life-forms is known as taxonomy.

CLASSIFICATION In response to the need for better organization, an 18th century Swedish botanist named Carolus Linnaeus offered a solution to the confusion of classifying and

57 CLASSIFICATION In response to the need for better organization, an 18th century Swedish botanist named Carolus Linnaeus offered a solution to the confusion of classifying and naming organisms. Linnaeus s classified animals based on their similarities in morphology (form & structure), rather than by location. (i.e. bats have wings but are not birds)

58 CLASSIFICATION Carolus Linnaeus s Classification System: There are two important features of this system: 1. The system classifies species into hierarchical levels, in which level is nested within larger levels (taxa). 2. Each species has a two-part name.

59 CLASSIFICATION Part 1 - Seven Levels (taxa) of Classification Keep Plates Clean Or Family Gets Sick! Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species

60 CLASSIFICATION

61 CLASSIFICATION Part 2 - Binominal Nomenclature The two-part name Linnaeus gave each organism is a Latin, scientific name. Genus, species = Panthera leo

62 CLASSIFICATION Biologists have developed a precise method to help them classify and identify unknown organisms. The classification tool called a dichotomous key, uses a logical approach to classify an organism.

63 CLASSIFICATION The Six Kingdom System:

64 CLASSIFICATION

65 CLASSIFICATION The New Three Domain System

66 THE CONTROLLED EXPERIMENT Most experiments in Biology are controlled experiments - Used to gather data under controlled conditions. performed to test your hypothesis(an educated guess) (prove or disprove it) Based on a comparison of a control group with an experimental group.

67 THE CONTROLLED EXPERIMENT All factors in the control group and the experimental group are identical except for one: independent variable - what is being tested During the experiment, observations and measurements are taken from both groups, looking specifically at another factor or variable: dependent variable - dependent because it is driven by/or results from the independent variable.

Overview of Cells. Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes The Cell Organelles The Endosymbiotic Theory

Overview of Cells. Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes The Cell Organelles The Endosymbiotic Theory Overview of Cells Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes The Cell Organelles The Endosymbiotic Theory Prokaryotic Cells Archaea Bacteria Come in many different shapes and sizes.5 µm 2 µm, up to 60 µm long Have large